Some nations conquer weaker ones through intimidation and war while some thrive on and extend their influence through commerce. This is what makes Phoenicians stand out among other groups of people in the Fertile Crescent in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age.Their trade along the coasts is recorded on the Biblical Timeline around 1254 BC.
Master seafarers and traders sum up the legacy of the Phoenicians who flourished in the Mediterranean and beyond in 1500 BC-300 BC. The Phoenicians occupied territories or city-states that spanned through the coast of the Levant from Syria to Lebanon to Israel. Their major cities were Tyre (present day Sur), Sidon, Baalbek, Byblos, and Arwad. Among others, but their superb trading skills took them to the far reaches of the Mediterranean Sea and even the Atlantic Ocean.
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The main trading ports of the Phoenicians were scattered all over the Mediterranean, including Algiers, Cyprus, Sardinia, Sicily, Leptis Magna, Carthage, Tripoli, Malta, Algarve, Cadiz, and Phoenicus (modern Finike, Turkey). Apart from the valuable purple dye they traded for and other resources their seaside towns could not produce, the Phoenicians also traded with the famed cedars of Lebanon, glass, ceramics, and weapons. Their most important legacy, however, was their invention of the modern alphabet and their innovations in shipbuilding.
“Phoenician ship Carved on the face of a sarcophagus. 2nd century AD.”
At that time, venturing out of the Mediterranean was unheard of, but it has been said that Phoenicians reached the Atlantic coast of Africa and even northward to the British coast. Herodotus mentioned a Phoenician expedition commissioned by Pharaoh Necho II to navigate the entire coast of Africa. The Phoenicians left via the Red Sea, sailed the eastern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, and came back through the Pillars of Heracles in Gibraltar.
Bronze was a highly prized metal in the ancient world and is created by mixing copper with tin. The Near East and North Africa regions were not known to have major tin mining operations during the Bronze Age, which may have pushed the Phoenicians to look for this highly prized metal elsewhere. Their search may have taken them past the Gibraltar and northwards to Britain where tin mining in Devon and Cornwall were at its height since the early Bronze Age. Britain is one of the proposed Tin Islands or Cassiterides mentioned by Greek historian Herodotus and geographer Strabo.
Astronomy is defined as the scientific study of objects in outer space. However, in the ancient world, astronomy was used with astrology which is the study of the position and movement of celestial bodies and how these affect people’s lives. This is recorded on the Biblical Timeline with World History around 1954 BC. However, as early as 3000 BC, people in Mesopotamia observed the heavens and kept astronomical records. They divided time into minutes and seconds, developed a calendar system, and compiled star catalogs. Their knowledge of these subjects was also used in astrology as they lived in a harsh environment where food can be scarce, and they were surrounded by enemies from other lands. Which made them reliant on primitive astrology for signs, omens, and direction.
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Astronomy played a big part in ancient Mesopotamian religion with astral gods that included Anu (lord of the constellations), Nergal (god of the sun), Shamash or Utu (god of the sun), and Sin or Nanna (god of the moon). They are among the major astral deities worshiped by early Mesopotamians. This pantheon of gods was also included in the Sumerian folklore. Sumerians were credited to be world’s first known mathematicians and astronomers with their knowledge of geometry, algebra, and bookkeeping remarkably advanced.
“Babylonians were credited as the first ones who developed the earliest lunisolar calendar”
The Sumerians were later subdued by Akkadians (called Babylonians by the Greeks) under Sargon the Great. Babylonians adopted the Sumerian beliefs in gods such as Inanna, Zababu, Anu, and Enlil. Sargon even included his daughter, Enheduanna as priestess to Nanna (Sin). Some of the oldest collections of astronomical observations were written and collected at the time of Sargon of Akkad’s reign. Babylon is credited as the birthplace of ancient astrology and was the first to organize astrology some time in second millennium BC. Clay tablets inscribed with names of constellations and other astronomical events that have been recovered. Such as the Venus Tablets of King Ammisaduqa (one of the cuneiform tablets included in the Enuma Anu Enlil) which records the rising and setting of the planet Venus over a period of 21 years. Babylonians were credited as the first ones who developed the earliest lunisolar calendar with 12 months divisions. As well as accurately predicting solar and lunar eclipses. Eclipses were bad omens for Babylonian kings. Predicting these caused a person in advance to be killed in the king’s stead to appease the wrath of their gods.
When Assyrians conquered Babylon, much of what is known about astronomy and astrology was kept alive after the King Ashurbanipal of Assyria transferred important literary, mathematical, and astronomical works of his empire to his own library. The clay tablets where the astronomical observations were inscribed were then dug up thousands of years later in Kouyunjik (Nineveh).
The Egyptian civilization is one of the oldest in the world, spanning over 3000 years until the birth of Christ. Similar to other civilizations, ancient Egyptian history experienced periodic rise and decline of its 3000-year history. What makes it unique, however, is its length compared to other prominent civilizations that rose through the Bronze Age to the Iron Age period. As history often shows, ancient Egypt was not without a decline in its 3000-year history. These times of political chaos were divided into three periods or kingdoms: First Intermediate Period, Second Intermediate Period, and Third Intermediate Period. These events are listed on the Biblical Timeline under “Intermediate Kingdoms” from 2004 BC to 1529 BC.
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The First Intermediate Period began after the death of Pepi II, ending Egypt’s Old Kingdom and 6th Dynasty. This period was characterized by the decline of the central government with the Pharaoh as its head, rise, and self-sufficiency of the nomarchs (rulers of nomes or provinces). And the establishment of competing dynasties in Heracleopolis and Thebes with some nomarchs taking sides between the two.
“Head of a King, ca. 2650-2600 BC, Brooklyn Museum; The earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale. Not until Dynasty III were statues made which show the ruler life-size.”
There are several reasons which caused the decline of the Old Kingdom. One reason was Pepi II’s long reign which ancient Egyptian historian Manetho and the Turin Cannon attribute at approximately 94 years. This has been widely disputed. But if the length of his reign really lasted up to 94 years then it had created a succession problem as most of the possible heirs to his throne would be dead by then. Another reason for the decline of the Old Kingdom is the reduction of floods brought by the Nile river for up to three decades resulting in a severe drought and famine.
The upheaval brought by the low floods was felt by Egypt in all areas of their lives, from political to cultural to economic. Internal strife was so severe that separate dynasties were established in Memphis and Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper Egypt. Each was supported by different nomarchs that further plunged Egypt into chaos. There were four dynasties in total during the First Intermediate Period, starting from the 7th Dynasty to the 11th Dynasty.
Art and culture reflected this period when provincial styles flourished as there were no central authorities to provide standards for artists. As chaos reigned in the kingdom, administrators of nomes were also unable to acquire essential materials from neighboring nomes. The struggle for power between different factions stopped during the time of Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty in Thebes after he defeated the rulers of Heracleopolis.
Second Intermediate Period (c 1786-1550 BC or 1640-1550 BC)
The fall of the Middle Kingdom ushered in the Second Intermediate Period after the death of the female Middle Kingdom pharaoh Sobekneferu (12th Dynasty) who was without an heir. It was followed by the 13th Dynasty that ruled from Itjtawy near Memphis. The Second Intermediate Period saw the rise of Khendjer, Egypt’s first Semitic king during the 13th Dynasty. But this dynasty overall was unable to hold a unified Egypt. During this period, the capital switched from Avaris to Thebes to Abydos to Kerma, depending on which dynasty ruled that part of Egypt.
The Hyksos, an Asiatic tribe from the northeast, first settled in Egypt during the time of Sobekhotep IV and by 1720 BC, they became so powerful they took over the town of Avaris. They conquered Memphis in 1650 BC which resulted in the collapse of the 13th Dynasty. They later overran the 16th Dynasty in Thebes, establishing themselves as Egypt’s 15th Dynasty. The Hyksos introduced the harnessed horse and chariot into Egypt, as well as the composite bow, vertical loom, armor, lyre, and lute.
The rule of the Hyksos ended with the rise of the 17th Dynasty from Thebes. Seqenenre Tao and Kamose defeated the Hyksos during succeeding wars of liberation. The rise of the 18th Dynasty saw the Hyksos finally driven out of Egypt under Ahmose I.
Third Intermediate Period (c 1070-712 BC or 1069-664 BC)
Egypt experienced another decline after the death of Rameses XI whose dynasty was plagued by intrigues and problems of succession. One of the main reasons for the gradual decline was the internal strife between the priests and pharaohs. This started with Akhenaten way before the Third Intermediate Period. Because of political or religious reasons, Akhenaten diminished the power of Theban-based priests of Amon by establishing the worship of Aten. Priests were almost as powerful as the pharaoh and held just as much wealth as the king. Akhenaten’s move to diminish their power soured the relationship between the priests and the dynasty. The gradual weakening of Egypt’s central authority also meant the rise of nomarchs.
The earlier dynasty under Thutmose III expanded the territory to the Mitanni kingdom far north across the Euphrates and south to Nubia. Campaigns such as these were costly and by the end of Rameses XI’s reign (last pharaoh of the New Kingdom), the funds had been depleted. With no money to pay for the troops, restlessness brewed among the ranks. The situation was exacerbated by forces beyond the pharaoh’s control which included a series of reduced flooding in the Nile. Which caused droughts and famine, as well as the repeated incursion of Sea Peoples.
The rulers that succeeded Rameses XI were either several High Priests of Amon (21st Dynasty), Libyan rulers from the Meshwesh immigrant tribe (22nd and 23rd Dynasties) and finally, rulers from Nubia. The Egyptian pharaoh Sheshonk who was of Libyan descent seemed to be the pharaoh who “came up and attacked Jerusalem” during the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kings 14:25–26). Egypt enjoyed a relatively stable period during the rule of Libyan pharaoh Shoshenq I, but it splintered later on during the reign of succeeding kings. Nubians from the south took advantage of the chaotic Egyptian administration and launched a campaign that briefly saw them as rulers of Egypt.
Chaos reigned during Egypt’s Second Intermediate Period. Which was right before the Hyksos took over around 1700 BC where it is listed on the Biblical Timeline. Disunity was rampant after the fall of the Middle Kingdom at the time of Sobekneferu’s death. She was a female Pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom’s 12th Dynasty, who passed away without an heir. The lack of an heir resulted in problems in succession to the throne and different factions vied to obtain absolute power. A series of ineffectual kings of the 13th Dynasty ruled some parts of Egypt, except Xois (Khasut or Sakha) which was ruled by 14th Dynasty rulers and Avaris, which was under the rule of Hyksos. The Hyksos were Semitic-Asiatic people from West Asia related to Canaanites. They settled in Egypt during the 18th century BC and by 1630 BC, Hyksos kings ruled a greater part of Egypt, forming the 15th Dynasty.
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“An earlier group of Asiatic peoples depicted entering Egypt c. 1900 BC, from the tomb of a 12th Dynasty official Khnumhotep II under pharaoh Senusret II at Beni Hasan.”
Brief Foreign Rule over Egypt
There are two hypotheses regarding how the Hyksos came to rule Egypt. The first is by gradual migration into the Nile River Delta, and as their population increased, they simply took advantage and overpowered the vulnerable and chaotic 13th and 14th Dynasties.
The second is through warfare. As mentioned before, the Hyksos were related to Amorites/Canaanites as seen on the Stela of Kamose regarding Apophis (Apepi). It depicts Apophis as the King of Retjenu (ancient Egyptian name for Canaan and Syria). The Amorites were mighty warriors who may have conquered Egypt by force using more modern warfare technologies such as the two-wheeled chariots, composite bows, and better battle axes.
When it came to warfare, the rider of the two-wheeled chariot had the advantage due to its maneuverability. There is evidence that Egyptians had also used chariots by that time. However, the Hyksos seemed more adept at handling them. The combination of the use of chariots and the composite bows (made from wood and horn) may have ensured the success of the Hyksos. The composite bow was smaller yet powerful and more convenient for warriors who are mobile. They also introduced the strengthening of fortresses, and they built their fortified camp in Avaris in the northeastern Nile delta which also served as their capital.
The Hyksos ruled a vast area of Egypt from the Nile Delta to the southern territory of Cusae for more than 100 years, sometimes overlapping with other Egyptian dynasties. They assimilated well within the Egyptian society by worshiping the Egyptian god Seth and adopting the native customs. They were overthrown and driven out of Egypt later on by the Theban pharaohs Kamose and his successor, Ahmose.
[Assyria: Great Power] (879 BC) –This was the height of their success and is listed on the Biblical Timeline during that time.
After the Bronze Age Collapse in 1185 and 1130 BC, as well as a series of natural calamities, invasions, internal strife, and migration, the old Assyrian empire fell into a relatively short and slight decline along with other civilizations in the Near East and Mediterranean region.
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By early 900 BC, Ashur-Dan II had instituted reforms within the government, stabilized boundaries, and boosted the agricultural sector to establish Assyria once again as a regional power. Adad-nirari II rose to power soon after Ashur-Dan II. He revived the ancient empire and the Neo-Assyrian Empire was established. Adad-nirari II continued securing Assyria’s borders during his reign. And then conquered the surrounding kingdoms including Persia, Philistia, Chaldea, Arabia, Egypt, Israel, and Judah among others. The expansion of the empire and Assyria’s rule of various nations continued until the reign of its last king, Ashur-ubalit II. During its height, the Neo-Assyrian empire spanned from Egypt in the west to Persia in the east and from Turkey in the north to Arabia in the south.
The Neo-Assyrian Empire had a reputation for military power and extreme ruthlessness to subduing conquered peoples. The Assyrians’ success lies in their efficient use of infantry, iron weaponry, engineering, and military strategies. For most of Israel’s history, Assyrians were mentioned in the Bible either as allies (as in the case of Ahaz and Tiglath-pileser) or as cruel enemies as mentioned by the majority of the prophets. Most of the kings of Judah and Israel after the death of Solomon lived under the constant fear of the sieges of Assyria. The prophets Elijah, Elisha, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, and Zechariah directly mentioned Assyria in their prophecies.
Here is a list of the names and dates of the Old Testament prophets who lived during the Neo-Assyrian period:
Jonah – c. 760 BC Amos – c. 760-755 BC Joel – 835-830 BC (?)
Hosea – 715-710 BC
Micah – 740-710 BC
Isaiah – c. 700-680 BC
Nahum – c. 630-620 BC
Zephaniah – c. 630 BC Habakkuk – c. 606 BC
Jeremiah – c. 585-580 BC
Here is a list of the Neo-Assyrian kings mentioned in the Bible:
As expected, the Assyrians’ extreme cruelty did not endear them to the conquered people. Constant rebellion plagued the empire and other factors such as a large population due to resettlement, drought, and internal political strife added to the decline of the Neo-Assyrian empire. The final blow came with the sacking and burning of Nineveh in 612 BC by a coalition of Persians, Medes, Babylonians, and Scythians.
Saint Patrick was a renowned Christian missionary being one of Ireland’s greatest bishops and can be found on the Biblical Timeline with World History around 450 AD. He was noted as the country’s main patron saint, aside from Saints Columba and Brigit. In the 5th century, Patrick served as a missionary, and he was also Armagh’s first bishop. Based on historians, Patrick was originally from Great Britain but Irish pirates captured him from his home and took him as a slave when they reached Ireland. After six years, the young teenager managed to escape from slavery and returned to his family. Soon, he became a cleric and traveled to western and northern Ireland. He lived his life serving numerous people during his missionary works. During the 7th century, he was proclaimed as Ireland’s patron saint.
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A native of Roman Britain, Patrick was born of a pious family. His father was a former deacon while his grandfather was a priest. As a child, Patrick was not as religious as his father and grandfather. However, the twists and turns in his life, when he was only 16 caused a dramatic change in his religious beliefs. After the pirates captured Patrick and took him as a slave, he believed it was through the Lord’s mercy that he gained freedom again. As a slave, Patrick managed to strengthen his faith in God as he continued to pray and eventually converted to Christianity.
He claimed that after his 6th year of captivity, a voice told him there was a ship ready to take him back home. So, Patrick left and traveled 200 miles to reach the port where a ship was waiting. Although he experienced some difficulties convincing the captain to allow him inside the ship, his prayers were answered when he finally stepped foot in the vessel that was headed to Britain.
However, this was not the end of Patrick’s struggles. Along with all passengers of the ship, he walked for 28 days in the wilderness just to reach his home. During his journey, he encouraged his companions to believe in God and continue their faith of reaching their destination safely. He eventually found his way back to his family. Patrick was in his early 20s by then. His ardent faith in God motivated him to study Christianity and learn more about this religion.
“Writings attribute St. Patrick for explaining to the Irish about the doctrine of the Holy Trinity by using the shamrock, a three-leafed plant, to demonstrate the Christian belief of three persons in one God.”
After his studies in Europe, he went to Marmoutier Abbey, which was in Tours. It was not too long after his visit to the Abbey that he was ordained by Saint Germanus of Auxerre. However, Patrick had a vision that led him back to Ireland to work as a missionary. Upon arrival to this country where he was once a slave, the locals forced him to leave. He then decided to go up north of Ireland where he found a place to rest on the islands situated at the Skerries coast.
Writings attribute St. Patrick for explaining to the Irish about the doctrine of the Holy Trinity by using the shamrock, a three-leafed plant, to demonstrate the Christian belief of three persons in one God. This event was first recorded in 1726. However, it may be much older. Since then, the shamrock has since become a primary representative for St Patrick’s Day.
As a missionary, he baptized numerous individuals and ordained priests. His actions then started more Christian communities. Being a foreigner in the land, Patrick had no legal protection, and he experienced physical torture from his adversaries. He was also said to have been held captive for about 60 days until his death. His determination to spread messages of love and faith in God became his greatest legacy. This made him one of Ireland’s most celebrated saints throughout history.
The period in history that involved Jews persecuted by Heraclius eventually resulted in a revolt around 625 AD where it can be found on the Biblical Timeline with World History. It was also a part of the long war between the Byzantine and Sasanian. According to scholars, the war hurt the population of Christians in Jerusalem and other areas such as the places near the east. The number of Christian deaths enabled the Arabs to invade the land. There were, however, some claims that no manuscripts or records in the past recorded the destruction of Christian communities situated in Jerusalem.
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The Byzantines frequently persecuted the Samaritans and Jews. The religious propaganda initiated by Byzantines featured information and images that were against the Jews. This caused the Jews to support the mission of Sasanians in their invasions. Several revolts were held such as the ones in Acre and Tyre, which were both in 610 AD. Unfortunately, some of the Jews were injured while others were massacred.
Persecutions of the Jews
During the year 622 BC Heraclius, a Roman Emperor, gathered his army to reclaim his territory that was taken by the Sasanians. Six years after, King Kavadh II of the Susanians intended to reconcile with Heraclius; however Kavadh II died after a short lived reign. In March 629, Heraclius entered Jerusalem (although there were some scholars who believed this was not the accurate date of his arrival because of some conflicts in the events that occured in history). There were claims that after Kavadh II died, there were six other people who ruled the empire including Shahrbaraz, Azarmidokht, Farrukh Hormizd, Ardashir II, Shapur-i Shahrvaraz and Borandukht.
Some scholars argue that it would have been impossible for Heraclius to reach Jerusalem during that time because the Persian troops were there. It would have been more likely for Heraclius to have waited till after Ardashir III was assassinated and Shahrbaraz ruled the Persian Empire in 630.
Heraclius and the Jews
The Jews decided to side with the Persians in the hopes of achieving better results than with the Byantines. By 611 AD, Judea and Syria were conquered by the Persians, and the army penetrated Jerusalem (much to the delight of the Jews). At this time, over 60,000 Christians were killed by the Persians and even the Holy Sepulcher was destroyed.
“At this time, over 60,000 Christians were killed by the Persians and even the Holy Sepulcher was destroyed.”
Unfortunately, it was too late when the Jews learned about the cruelty of the Persians. So, the Jews had a deal with Emperor Heraclius, which was intended to give him a better chance at reclaiming the Holy Land. When the bloody war between the Sasanians and Byzantines ended, Heraclius successfully reclaimed Judea. When the Jews tried to remind him of the promises he made to them, the emperor resisted and said that his victory was the result of his week of fasting and the will of God. Soon, he had all the Jews killed while those who were able to escape fled to Egypt for safety. This signaled the decline of Judaism in the land of Judea.
Justinian came from a renowned family in Illyricum, and he ruled the empire with great courage and determination. He can be found on the Biblical Timeline around 538 A.D. with World History. His 38 years of reign were regarded as one of the finest periods of the empire. He achieved much success as a ruler. However, there was a conflict that between Justinian and Catholicism during the latter parts of his reign; which had a negative impact on the empire. Nevertheless, Justinian was still considered among the Roman Empire’s best rulers because of his achievements as a military leader and a brilliant emperor.
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Justinian ruled for 38 years, and there had numerous accomplishments that elevated the empire’s economy and military forces. He possessed exceptional military skills, and he became engaged in legal and architectural activities that improved the infrastructure of the empire. His vision was to revive the power and glory of the Roman Empire, and he succeeded in doing so. There were some failures and challenges that he encountered along the way.
Catholicism and Justinian
As a responsible ruler, Justinian was dedicated to promoting peace and order among his people. He set himself as both king and priest of the empire, and he wanted to deal with matters involving the State and the Church. Justinian wanted to reconcile various believers in his empire, specifically the Catholic and Monophysites. In fact, he was married to a Monophysite, but her influence to Justinian created some conflicts over the last few years of his rule. Soon, Justinian earned a reputation for being a persecutor of the Catholic Church, which was noted as one of his negative images as a ruler.
“Soon, Justinian earned a reputation for being a persecutor of the Catholic Church.”
Theodora, his wife, was a secret Monophysite, and she encouraged him to give more freedom to Monophysites that lived in Egypt and Syria. Along the way, this would steer him farther from his duties to the Catholic Church. Theodora believed that by doing what she recommended, this would strengthen the empire’s alliance with the people in Egypt and Syria. Furthermore, this helped Justinian create an even stronger empire once he entered the East, and also after his successful attempts to conquer both Babylonia and Persia.
Theodora continued to influence and affect Justinian’s decisions until it came to a point that he began to show more favor to the monophysitism. Also, this heretic mentality reached the West and encouraged Severus (a heretic) to influence Theodora in having the sect called Miaphysitism formally recognized in the Empire. At this time, Justinian was involved in establishing his campaign to conquer Europe again. It did not take too long before Pope Silverius was deposed to be replaced by an anti-pope. This decision of Justinian put an end to his ties with the Catholic Church.
Meanwhile, Justinian was determined to extend his empire over to Asia. However, he was not successful in doing so, and he had to withdraw his army from Europe only to deal with difficulties he was experiencing in Asia. The attack by Barbarians in the Balkans led to more problems that deeply concerned the emperor.
Overall, Justinian remains as the empire’s greatest rulers after the reign of Constantine. His early years as a ruler were impressive, and he possessed remarkable qualities that allowed him to garner numerous accomplishments as the empire’s courageous leader.
The pinnacle of Mayan civilization can be found on the Biblical Timeline with World History around 500 AD. It was a period of numerous accomplishments by the Maya people. One of their most notable legacies was the Maya hieroglyphic script; that was a writing system used by the Columbian Americans. The people also developed their mathematical, astronomical and architecture systems. The entire civilization expanded from the southeastern portion of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and western parts of El Salvador and Honduras.
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It was during the Preclassic Era when sedentary communities were established in the region. Alongside this, there were different crops cultivated by the people including squashes, chili peppers, beans, and maize. These were all important to the typical diet of the Maya people, and they came up with ways to improve the quality and quantity of their crops.
According to researchers, the very first cities in the Maya region were developed as early as 750 BC. After centuries, the cities flourished as more and more monumental architectures were built. For instance, there were large temples constructed that featured ornate stucco facades that added to the grandeur of the structures.
In the Preclassic period, numerous cities were developed, specifically in the Peten Basin. By 250 AD (which is noted as the Classic Period) the Maya started to sculpt monuments. It was also the period in history when there were more city-states formed. This helped improve trade among other nations. There were two well-known rivals in the Maya lowlands, which were the Tikal and the Calakmul.
During the classic period, the people believed in the “divine king”, and he mediated between the mortals on earth and the different elements in the supernatural realm. As for kingship, it was traditionally passed to the eldest son. The one appointed as the king is expected to serve as an excellent war leader; which means he must possess essential qualities of a ruler. In the Late Classic era. However, there was an increase in an aristocracy. This reduced the divine king’s exclusive power. This period also presented more and more art forms by the people, which included fine materials such as ceramics, jade, wood, and obsidian (to name a few).
“Numerous architectures were found all throughout the city including pyramid-temples and palaces.”
The cities continued to expand greatly, and soon, a growing number of administrative and commercial complexes were built. These were all constructed along with residential districts in the city center. Causeways were also established, and these linked various parts of the city for a more efficient means of getting from one place to the next. Numerous architectures were found all throughout the city including pyramid-temples and palaces. Buildings aligned strategically for astronomical studies and ceremonial ball courts.
As hieroglyphic writing was developed in the Classic period, the Mayan people began to record their rituals and history. They created their screen fold books that featured these important pieces of information. Maya text was also discovered on ceramics and stelae. Unfortunately, only three of the screen fold books were spared while the others were destroyed by the Spanish.
Indeed, the Mayan civilization contributed so much to the world’s history. And showed the intellect and skill of the people in improving their way of life.
Julian the Apostate served as an emperor in Rome between the years 361 and 363 AD where he can be found on the Biblical Timeline. He was an author and philosopher among his other responsibilities throughout his life. In 355, he was appointed as Caesar by Constantius II and victoriously stopped the Franks and the Alamanni.
One of his significant accomplishments included the defeat of the Alamanni during the Battle of Argentoratum, in 357. When he was in Lutetia, his soldiers proclaimed him as the Augustus, which was in 360. This started a civil war between him and Constantius. Unfortunately, before the conflict was settled, Constantius died just after Julian was called as his new successor. He fought against the Sassanid army where he was wounded badly and died.
Background
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‘Julian the Apostate presiding at a conference of sectarians.’
According to scholars, Julian had some accomplishments including his success as a social reformer, theosophist and military commander. He intended to direct the Empire to its old Roman values. In fact, he rejected Christianity and aimed to bring back the ancient religious practices of the Romans. Because of his blatant hatred of Christianity, he was given the name “Julian the Apostate”, which means someone who has abandoned his principles and religion.
As a child, he grew up in Bithynia. His grandmother raised him, and by the time he was seven years of age the Christian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia became one of his mentors. The Gothic eunuch Mardonius taught and inspired the young Julian, as well.
In 342, Julian was sent into exile, along with Gallus. He was forced to enter Marcellum, a place in Cappadocia while he was in exile. It was here that he met George of Cappadocia, who was a Christian bishop. The bishop introduced to him the classical tradition of Christianity. At 18 years old, Julian travelled to Nicomedia and Constantinople after he regained his freedom.
As An Emperor
In 361, he travelled to Constantinople during the time that he was already proclaimed as the sole emperor. While there, he presided over the Christian burial of Constantius, despite the fact that he rejected Christianity. His performance of this political act showed how he was indeed lawful to the throne. Furthermore, he was believed to have ordered the construction of the Santa Costanza on a location outside of Rome, which was intended as a mausoleum for Constantina and Helena.
The emperor was against the manner in which his predecessors ruled the empire. He considered the administration as corrupt and inefficient. Thus, he ordered the dismissal of numerous eunuchs, officials and servants. A Chalcedon tribunal was also set up, and this designed to handle the corruption that was prevalent during the old administration. Executions of high-ranking officials under the rule of Constantius were arranged.
Julian aimed to expand the authority of the cities in the empire. There was a reduction in the direct involvement of the Imperial in urban matters. City lands of the imperial government were given back to the cities, and the payment of tribute referred to as the Aurum coronarium, became voluntary. He made several changes to the administration when he was an emperor, which had an impact on the people and the empire’s economy.
