Category: Bible Timeline Chart

During the ancient times, enormous mounds of earth once dotted the landscape of the United States’ Eastern coast and Midwest. Many of the mysterious mounds were eventually destroyed to give way to farms and other developments, but they continue to fascinate even when the mounds were reduced in number and in size. These mounds are recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History around 725 AD.

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These massive earthworks were constructed by the ancient North Americans of different cultures (Poverty Point, Troyville, Coles Creek, Plaquemine, and Mississippian cultures), and construction likely started as far early as the Archaic Period and reached its peak during the Woodland Period. They piled soil, shells, rocks, and other debris on top of each layer to build these mounds. Some of which were constructed in Kolomoki and Ocmulgee in Southwest Georgia, Pinson in Tennessee, Cahokia in Illinois, and Toltec in Arkansas.

Additional mounds were erected over the years in different areas and soon, the Eastern and Midwest landscapes were dominated by these enormous earthworks. They were primarily used and reserved as bases for temples or houses of priests/rulers (especially flat-topped ones). The common people who built them did not live on these imposing structures; instead, they lived in nearby settlements and visited the mounds only during religious ceremonies and other rituals.

From time to time, the structures on the flat-topped mounds were burned or destroyed to make way for bigger ones with the old buildings buried inside. The construction and maintenance of the mounds continued up to the 18th century when the last of the mound builders were driven off their lands by violence, famine or decimated by diseases (influenza and smallpox) brought on by the massive influx of European immigrants.

As Byzantium

Between the years 687 and 622 BC, the Greeks sought out and established new cities that extended in Asia Minor, located northeast of the archipelago. One of these new cities was called Byzantium, a fertile seaside city that became the gateway to the Black Sea and Mediterranean on the European side. The colonists of this new city were from Megara in the Attica region. They built the city of Chalcedon on the eastern side as Byzantium’s lesser-known twin. Apart from its fertile lands, the Greeks favored Byzantium as it was strategically positioned for defense and could only be attacked with relative ease on the western side. Byzantium was named Constantinople and the Roman capitol under Constantine the Great around 330 AD according to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History.

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The Greek city of Byzantium was dominated by the powerful Persian empire by the fifth century BC. This crossroad was the scene of bloody battles between the Greek and Persian armies. It was not until the fourth century that the Athenians and Spartans alternately controlled the city during the Peloponnesian War. Byzantium was annexed by Alexander the Great when he crossed from Europe to Asia to wrest territories from Darius III. It passed hands when Byzantium became a territory of the Roman Empire at the height of its power. Most of the people in this cosmopolitan city were Greek and spoke the language, but they considered themselves Roman citizens in every sense of the word.

The City of Constantine the Great

It was during the reign of Constantine the Great when Byzantium was transformed from a regular seaside city to the Roman Empire’s eastern capital. Fresh from his victory over Licinius (one-fourth of the Tetrarchy led by Diocletian and former ruler of the eastern portion of the empire), Constantine wanted a new city to celebrate his success. Rome, the old capital, would not do as its people were stubbornly pagan, especially its ruling class. As he grew up and spent most of his adult life elsewhere, Constantine probably did not feel any attachment to the old capital. He needed a fresh start.

He first considered the city of Troy but favored Byzantium instead as his new capital. The city was a strategic hub of east-west trade which contributed to its wealth. The foundation was set in 330 AD. Just like Alexander the Great many centuries ago, he named the new capital after himself: Constantinople.

Constantine enlarged the city with magnificent construction projects, although none of the buildings survived into the modern times. All religions were tolerated in this cosmopolitan city, but Christianity had a special place in this city because of Constantine’s patronage. It continued to be the Eastern Roman Empire’s capital even after the fall of the Western Empire in the fifth century and until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Attila the Hun was the man who would be later called the “scourge of God” because of his extreme cruelty. He is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History between 434 and 453 AD. Attila was born in Pannonia (modern Transdanubia in Hungary). Pannonia, at that time, was ceded by the Roman Emperor to the Huns. It was the seat of the short-lived Hunnic Empire ruled by Attila. In his book Getica (The Origin or Deeds of the Goths), the Gothic bureaucrat and historian Jordanes stated that Attila was the son of a man named Mundiuch (Mundzuk) by an unnamed woman. He had an older brother named Bleda (Buda), and he was the nephew of the Hunnic brother-rulers named Rugila (or Ruga) and Octar. Jordanes described him as a short man with a broad chest, large head, small eyes, and a thin beard; indeed, it was clear that the Gothic historian was in awe of Attila and he described the warlord as “a man born into the world to shake the nations, the scourge of all lands, who in some way terrified all mankind by the dreadful rumors noised abroad concerning him. He was haughty in his walk, rolling his eyes hither and thither, so that the power of his proud spirit appeared in the movement of his body. He was indeed a lover of war, yet restrained in action, mighty in counsel, gracious to suppliants and lenient to those who were once received into his protection.”

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The Huns, just like other steppe nomads, had a reputation for excellent horsemanship. It was rumored that they were taught how to ride a horse even before they could walk. They also learned archery, as well as how to wield weapons such as the sword and the Scythian ax. All the Hunnic preparation for warfare was received by Attila as well as his brother. He would use these with full efficiency and ruthlessness against the Romans and other enemies.

One Empire, Two Kings

Attila spoke Latin and Gothic as these were the languages of trade and negotiations at that time. The frequent wars between the Romans, Huns, and Goths became very destructive by the time the boys had grown up. When their uncle Ruga died, the kingship passed on to Bleda and Attila, and Roman rulers were forced to sign the Treaty of Margus in 439 AD to prevent the brothers from leading another invasion into the Roman territory. The treaty also required Rome to return all the Hun refugees who fled to Roman territory, a fair trade agreement, and an annual tribute. Moreover, Rome was forbidden to enter into any treaties with the enemies of the Huns.

This treaty gave the Romans a break from the constant threat of the Huns. They focused on defending their territories from the invasion of the Vandals and the Sassanid Empire. It was breached years later when Attila and Bleda decided there was more to be gained in warfare than in peace. The cunning brothers claimed that Rome did not honor the treaty and did not return all Hun refugees to them. They also claimed that a bishop desecrated Hun graves. Attila demanded that the said bishop be sent to him for punishment. Since there was no evidence of the crimes, the Roman envoy refused to hand over the bishop.

In 441 AD, the brothers led a large-scale invasion of Roman territories. The Huns, led by Attila and Bleda, invaded Illyricum, Margus (the city was betrayed by the bishop who desecrated the Hun graves, and he opened the gates to the invaders himself), Naissus, and other cities that were near the Eastern Roman capital of Constantinople. To protect their territories from further destruction, Valentinian III of Western Roman Empire and Theodosius II of the Eastern Roman Empire paid off the Huns with a heavy tribute. Attila and Bleda agreed to withdraw—but not for long.

Invasion of Balkan Provinces

Some time later, Attila emerged as the single ruler of the Huns. It was rumored that he became the sole king after he killed Bleda. Attila proved to be a more-than-capable leader without Bleda. He unified the Huns under his leadership and led the invasion of the Balkan provinces sometime between 446 and 447 AD. This ended in the large-scale destruction of cities including Marcianople, Illyricum, Moesia, Thrace, and Scythia. The Huns were so relentless in their attacks that they came near and threatened Constantinople itself. This forced Emperor Theodosius to enter into a new treaty with Attila in 448 AD and pay a hefty tribute to prevent further invasions.

Honoria: An Unfortunate Wedding Proposal

Honoria, the sister of Emperor Valentinian, sent Attila a letter in 450 AD along with her engagement ring. She wanted to escape a marriage arranged by her brother to a man she did not want to marry. Attila took this as an offer of marriage from Honoria. Flattered, he sent back a message and demanded a dowry of half of the Western Roman Empire; however, Valentinian was understandably angry with his sister. He sent a message to Attila to take back Honoria’s marriage proposal.

Invasion of Gaul

The Huns, led by Attila, invaded Gaul in 451 AD and sacked Gallia Belgica (modern Belgium) as well as the cities of Trier in Germany and Metz in France. The rampage went on until the combined troops of Visigoths led by King Theodoric (who was killed in battle) and Romans (led by General Aetius) stopped the Huns in the Battle of Chalons (Catalaunian Plains). The result of the war was indecisive, and the Huns went home soon after an agreement was made.

Invasion of Italy and Death

It seemed Attila was not done yet and needed even the slightest reason to invade the Western Roman Empire. He remembered Honoria’s offer of marriage and in 452 AD, he invaded Italy to “claim” his bride. He destroyed cities as he neared Rome and severely sacked the city of Aquileia. When the people heard that Attila and his troops were about to invade, they fled to the marshy regions of northern Italy into what is now Venice and hoped that Attila would bypass them (the gamble paid off, and they were spared).

Attila and his warriors stopped at the banks of the Po River probably because of famine, lack of supplies, superstition (Alaric I, king of the Visigoths, died after he besieged the city of Rome), or the negotiations with Pope Leo, who was sent by Valentinian. He and his troops went back to Hungary, and there he took a younger wife named Ildico. According to legend, Attila died on his wedding night after he suffered a severe nosebleed which choked him to death.

The reign of the Christians was begun not long after the fall of the Military Emperors. According to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History, this began between the years of 325 and 375 AD. The Tetrarchy played a major role in this transition.

The Tetrarchy

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The rule of the military emperors was closely followed by the Tetrarchy of Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius, and Galerius. After he had defeated the last of the soldier emperors, Diocletian proved to be a clever and prudent ruler who knew that he would not be able to maintain his power over the vast empire if he were to reign alone. During this period, the Roman Empire was close to bursting at the seams as its territory spanned from Britain in the north, the borders of Africa in the south, Hispania in the west, and Syria in the east. To protect the empire from disintegration, Diocletian gave most of his power away to three men he appointed as his co-rulers.

To this end, he declared a trusted military officer named Maximian as co-emperor and gave him the title Augustus. Some time later, he appointed Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as junior emperors and gave them the title of Caesar. To ensure that the Caesars’ loyalty belonged only to this Tetrarchy, Diocletian gave his daughter in marriage to Galerius and Maximian’s to Constantius Chlorus

In 305 AD, Diocletian surprised Rome with the announcement of his retirement and insisted that Maximian also announce his abdication. With great reluctance, Maximian did, and they made a public abdication in favor of the two junior Caesars. Constantius received the Western Empire, which included Italy, Gaul, Hispania, Numidia, Britain, and Mauretania, while Galerius ruled the Eastern Empire which included Libya, Egypt, and Asia. Constantius Chlorus died of an illness in 306 AD in York—only a year after he became emperor, and his troops declared his son Constantine as the heir to the father’s power.

The Rise of Constantin

Galerius wanted to follow Diocletian’s rule and declared Severus (the new Augustus for the Western Empire and Galerius’ old friend) to replace Constantius. The plan to keep the Tetrarchy failed when Maximian returned from retirement and sided with Constantine. Severus was defeated and killed by Constantine’s troops, which added to the mess the supposed Tetrarchy entered. Throw in Maxentius (Maximian’s son who also wanted to be an emperor) into the chaotic mix and several years of full-scale civil war ensued.

Rome was under the rule of Maxentius in 312 AD when Constantine decided to cross the Alps to attack the now-unpopular ruler. Before they met, Constantine had this vision:

“about noon, when the day was already beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, CONQUER BY THIS. At this sight, he himself was struck with amazement, and his whole army also, which followed him on this expedition, and witnessed the miracle… He said, moreover, that he doubted within himself what the import of this apparition could be. And while he continued to ponder and reason on its meaning, night suddenly came on; then in his sleep the Christ of God appeared to him with the same sign which he had seen in the heavens, and commanded him to make a likeness of that sign which he had seen in the heavens, and to use it as a safeguard in all engagements with his enemies. ” (Eusebius of Caesaria)

For the first time in the empire’s history, a high-ranking military official adopted the first two letters of Christ’s name (chi and rho) and embossed them onto his helmet and his standard. He also had the chi-rho sign embossed on the shields of his soldiers, according to Roman Christian author Lactantius. Constantine’s adoption of the symbols would be the start of a new chapter in the life of 4th century Christians and a turning-point in faith’s history itself.

Maxentius and his troops took their stand at the Milvian Bridge on the Tiber River to block Constantine and his troops from the passage to Rome. Constantine was greatly outnumbered, but they rallied and forced Maxentius’ troops to turn back to Rome. The Milvian Bridge’s narrow design could not accommodate Maxentius’ troops when they tried to retreat. This forced them to build a pontoon bridge beside it. As they tried to escape, many of the soldiers drowned after the artificial bridge sank; Maxentius was one of the casualties of the Battle of Milvian Bridge.

Constantine executed many of Maxentius’ supporters when he arrived in Rome and dissolved the Praetorian Guard. He now had the time to deal with the two co-emperors: Licinius, who held the central part of the empire and Maximinus Daia whole ruled the eastern half of the empire. To remove Maximinus Daia, he entered into an alliance with the less-powerful Licinius. Constantine had dangled an offer too hard for the elderly Licinius to refuse: the marriage to his younger half-sister Constantia.

Licinius accepted, and his troops met Maximinus Daia’s in battle under the banner of the chi-rho, which Constantine himself used against the doomed Maxentius. Maximinus Daia and his troops marched under the banner of Jupiter. He was defeated in battle and forced to flee to the city of Tarsus where Licinius cornered him. Maximinus poisoned himself, but it took him four days to die because of the large full meal he ate before he ingested the poison. The bloodshed, however, did not stop there as Licinius was determined to get rid of the other claimants to the eastern throne, which included Maximinus’ wife and young children.

Christianity Made Legal in the Roman Empire

Constantine and Licinius met at Mediolanum to celebrate the latter’s marriage to Constantia and to issue the Edict of Milan which made Christianity legal in the empire. This act further endeared Constantine to the Roman Christians. His use of Christian symbols and the legalization of this relatively new religion was also a clever move to keep the empire intact. The Roman Empire was made up from different ethnic identities. To keep it from disintegration, he needed a reason to keep it intact, and a Christian identity that transcended ethnic ones did just that. He, however, continued to use Sol Invictus (Roman sun god) on his coins and was not baptized until he was on his deathbed.

Constantine waited for the perfect timing to get rid of Licinius and become the empire’s sole ruler. Licinius handed Constantine the excuse he needed when the former accused the Christians in his court of spying for Constantine. Constantine took advantage of this to accuse his co-emperor of persecution of Christians. This was illegal under the Edict of Milan, and Constantine promptly declared war against Licinius. He was defeated by Constantine in the Chrysopolis, but was only spared after his wife, Constantia, pleaded on his behalf to be exiled instead to Thessalonica.

Constantine was now the sole ruler of the empire, and he became more involved in Christianity as shown by his participation in the First Council of Nicaea. He also allowed the Christians to build churches not only in Rome but also in the Palestinian province. They were also given lands by the emperor, and it could be said that this was the start of Christianity’s golden age in the empire. He also built and dedicated a new capital in the east, then named it Constantinople (modern Istanbul) after himself. Constantine died on May 22, 337 AD in the city of Nicomedia of an unknown illness.

Constantinian Dynasty

The death of Constantine left a power vacuum in the empire as he did not name a successor while he was alive. The empire had no ruler for three months until the troops in Pannonia declared Constantine’s three sons as co-emperors. His eldest son Constantine II received the northern territories of Hispania, Gaul, and Britain; Constantius ruled the eastern portion of the empire; and the youngest, Constans, ruled Italy, Northern Africa, and Illyria.

The peace they sought didn’t last long after tensions rose up between the brothers, which ended in the death of Constantine II. The relationship between the two remaining brothers was peaceful even when their religious beliefs differed—Constantius was a believer in Arianism while Constans was not. Over the years, Constans proved to be an unpopular ruler with his imposition of high taxes and his corrupt practices. He had lost the support of the people and a coup by Magnentius in the city of Autun in Gaul forced him to flee to Hispania. He took refuge in a church in Helena (modern Elne and named after his grandmother) on the border between Gaul and Hispania and was killed in the church’s sanctuary. Constantius had already appointed Gallus (one of their first cousins) as a junior emperor, but he was killed in a brutal manner some time later. Constantius was now the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.

Gaul was far from peaceful and to stabilize the situation, Constantine appointed Gallus’ half-brother, Julian, as the ruler of the territory. Julian was an accomplished military man with many victories against the Germanic tribes and was very popular among the people after he lowered the taxes imposed upon them. Some time later, his troops revolted against Constantius and proclaimed him as emperor because of his popularity. Constantius was torn whether he should face the Persian forces which invaded the Near East territories or subdue the revolt when the news reached him. He chose to face the Persians first, and as luck would have it, the Sassanid troops retreated temporarily.

He hurried back home as soon as the Persian threat was minimized, but he came up with a high fever when they started the journey west in the fall of 361 AD. He never made it to Rome or Gaul, and he died in Mopsuestia, Cilicia where he was baptized. He proclaimed Julian as his heir before his death as he had no children of his own (except a daughter who was born afterward). His body was taken to Constantinople and buried at the Church of the Holy Apostles where the body of his father was also interred.

Brief Rule of Julian the Apostate

The events of Julian’s early life molded his religious views and caused him to abandon Christianity altogether, which earned him the title “the apostate.” Constantius, in an effort to remove other claimants to the throne except his brothers, ordered a purge of his grandfather’s children with his second wife, Theodora, which left only Julian and his half-brother Gallus alive. He received a Christian education early in life, but the violence of Constantius’ purge during his childhood led him to paganism. Julian did not persecute Christians, but he revoked their tax-exempt status and confiscated their church properties—a clear divergence from the policies of Constantine and his sons.

His reign was short—nearly eighteen months—and he died after a disastrous expedition against the Persians in Ctesiphon. He was struck by a spear on his side as he pursued the retreating Persians. It pierced his internal organs and caused his death at the age of thirty-two. Julian was buried in Tarsus, but his body was transferred to Constantinople a century later as decreed by Emperor Leo I.

Emperor Jovian and Revival of Christianity

Julian died young and with him, the Constantinian dynasty. As expected, he did not name an heir, so it was up to the troops to choose the next emperor. They chose Jovian, a Moesian general who brought the body of Constantius to Constantinople from Cilicia. His reign was also woefully short at eight months. He also gave away a large chunk of the empire’s territory east of the Tigris river to the Persians during peace negotiations. Jovian and his troops returned west after this, but he died in Dadastana, Galatia for unknown reasons. He would be remembered as the one who brought Christianity back as Rome’s state religion after the brief resurgence of paganism under Julian. Just like the earlier Constantinian emperors, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles.

Valentinian Dynasty

After the short-lived reign of Jovian, the troops at Nicaea declared the Tribune of elite infantry regiment named Valentinian as emperor. He was born in Cibalae in Pannonia from an Illyrian family and rose steadily through the ranks during his military career. Upon his accession, he appointed his younger brother, Valens, as emperor of the eastern half of the empire while he managed the western part. Valens, however, joined the army later than his brother and remained subordinate to him for most of their joint rule.

Valentinian was victorious against the Alemanni through his general Jovinus and against the various tribes in Britain through the general Theodosius. He fortified the Roman territories on the Rhine for many years. He died of a stroke or heart attack after berating the Quadi envoys sent to him in 375 AD. Before he died, he appointed his young son Gratian as co-Augustus of the west.

Meanwhile, Valens needed to deal with the rebellion of Procopius, one of the last members of the Constantinian dynasty, who challenged his rule of Constantinople. Procopius was later defeated in the Battle of Thyatira after he was betrayed by his own men to Valens. He fled the battlefield and was executed in 366 AD. Valens launched successful military campaigns against the

Valens launched successful military campaigns against the Visigoths and was forced to face the Persian threat in Mesopotamia. The battles against the Persians ended in a truce, and he provided asylum to Visigoth refugees who were displaced by the Hunnic invasions. Unfortunately for Valens, the same Visigoths later rebelled against him, and he died in the Battle of Adrianople along with many of his troops. Both brothers were Christians, but Valentinian believed in Nicene Christianity while Valens favored Arianism.

The 8-year old Gratian was appointed by his father as Augustus in 367 AD. He was proclaimed the new ruler of the Western Empire when his father died in 375 AD. He ruled the western half of the empire alone for some time but recognized his brother Valentinian II after he was declared emperor by the troops stationed in Aquincum. Gratian launched military campaigns in Gaul and appointed Theodosius as emperor of the East after the death of his uncle Valens in the disastrous Battle of Adrianople.

Gratian started out well in the early years of his reign but was later influenced by the bishop Ambrose of Milan as well as the Frankish general Merobaudes. As a result, his popularity was extremely low. He was so unpopular among the Roman troops that it pushed them to declare Magnus Maximus as emperor in Britain. Gratian, in an effort to crush the rebellion and put the usurper in his proper place, hurried to Gaul to reach Britain. His troops deserted him on the way, and he was killed in Lugdunum after he tried to flee.

After the death of Gratian, Magnus Maximus invaded Italy, which forced Valentinian to flee to Thessalonica. The Greek city was ruled by the emperor of the East, Theodosius I, and Valentinian came back to rule after Theodosius overthrew Maximus. He did not stay in Italy, however, and moved to a palace in Vienna, which was under the regency of a Frankish general named Arbogast. Valentinian II was found dead in his palace in the city after he publicly dismissed Arbogast because of the latter’s opposition to him leading an army into Italy to counter the barbarian forces.

Teotihuacan, located in what is now central Mexico, was one of the most powerful cities in the New World. At its peak, it extended its influence over the distant Maya highlands. According to the Bible Timeline with World History, this occurred around the beginning of the 3rd century AD. Particularly the cities of Tonina in Mexico, as well as Kaminaljuyu and Iximche in Guatemala.

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Kaminaljuyu was one of the cities that saw the rise and influence of Teotihuacan, a massive Maya city located in the central highlands of Guatemala. Traces of the Esperanza culture (an offshoot of Teotihuacan) were found in the excavation of Kaminaljuyu. The architectural style of talud-tablero (sloping and vertical panels) and its burial practices are a prime example. It was possible that the immigrants or invaders from central Mexico brought with them their own architects so that a replica of the structures of Teotihuacan were built in Kaminaljuyu.

The Esperanza culture burials in Kaminaljuyu was a treasure trove of information about Teotihuacan influence in the Maya highlands. Recovered from the tombs were Teotihuacan-style pottery, a combination of Maya and Teotihuacan pottery, and pottery from the neighboring Maya lowland region (Peten). A slate mirror from the Veracruz culture, jade jewelry, shells, metates, and other artifacts were also recovered from the tombs. Up to what extent it exercised its influence over these cities is still being debated by Maya historians.

According to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History, the Julians ruled Rome around the time of Christ. Listed below are the names of those that reigned under that name, followed by a summary of each one. Each one ends up worse than the next and wickedness soon leads to their downfall.

Augustus (Octavian)

The assassination of Julius Caesar left Rome without a clear ruler. Various claimants (including Caesar’s adopted nephew Brutus, his general Mark Antony, and his grand-nephew Octavian) fought for power. Octavian (later called Augustus) emerged as the clear winner in this three-way contest for domination of Rome in 30 BC (four-way if Mark Antony’s former ally Lepidus was included).

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But there was one thing that stood in the way of Octavian’s total rule of Rome: its Senate. It was likely that he would need to say goodbye to his ambition of dominating Rome if he were to go openly against the Roman Senate. He pretended to respect it and in return, the Senate allowed him to remain as consul. He also received extraordinary powers over the provinces as well as the troops that were stationed there. Octavian was allowed to create the Praetorian Guard, which seemed like a simple group of bodyguards at first, but it eventually grew to be his own private army.

The Senate gave Octavian the title of Augustus in 29 BC. Although his official title was still that of a consul, he had all the powers of an emperor. He invented the title “princeps” which means “first one or leader”; a word that would later evolve into the word “prince”. The one thing that did not work out well for Augustus was his lack of an heir as he had no sons of his own. So he had his daughter marry her cousin Marcellus (who died after a year) and to a man named Agrippa (who also died) to produce the son that would be his heir. His quest for an heir led Augustus to marry Julia off to Tiberius, her stepbrother, but this was unsuccessful too. Julia’s sons with Agrippa died young while the youngest was so vicious that the possibility of making him an heir was out of the question. The only one left to be his heir was his stepson Tiberius and Augustus gave him more power as he aged. Tiberius was proclaimed as proconsul and princeps by the Senate, and Augustus died in 14 AD.

Tiberius

Augustus’ stepson Tiberius was well into middle age when he was confirmed as Rome’s princeps. He followed Augustus’ lead and repeatedly declined the recognition as head of state so he would not look too anxious for power. He finally accepted, when he saw the Senate’s exasperation with what looked like his humility. He was soon confirmed as the new head of state. Tiberius chose his nephew, Germanicus as his heir instead of his own son, Drusus. However, the death of Germanicus left him no choice but to make his son as the new heir. When Drusus died, Tiberius became despondent and left Rome for the island of Capri where he indulged in vice with other people.

In 31 BC, Tiberius brutally suppressed a rebellion led by the commander of the Praetorian Guard, Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius had the commander and his family killed along with hundreds of people who he thought had plotted against him. It was during Tiberius’ rule when Jesus of Nazareth upset the Jewish religious establishment with his teachings. He was later crucified under Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judea, at the insistence of the Jewish high priests.

Tiberius lapsed into a coma after an injury to his shoulder, and his doctor gave him only a day to live. His intended successor, Caligula, was proclaimed as the new emperor but to their surprise, Tiberius recovered and asked for something to eat. Macro, the commander of the Praetorian guard and supporter of Caligula, smothered him with blankets to prevent a confusing and embarrassing situation.

Caligula

Caligula was the son of Tiberius’ nephew Germanicus, and he became emperor in 37 BC after Tiberius’ death. Rome breathed a sigh of relief when Caligula gave amnesty to political prisoners and initiated tax reforms even after he was given extraordinary powers by the Roman Senate. It seemed that peace was within reach during the reign of Caligula—the opposite of the turbulent years during Tiberius. Unfortunately, this peace would not last as Caligula was no less vicious as his predecessor and great-uncle Tiberius (even worse).

Murder, promiscuity, cruelty, and vice were ever present during Caligula’s reign; he did not even spare the members of his own family from his cruelty. The news of his madness persisted after he lavished gifts upon his prized horse, Incitatus, and wanted to appoint him as consul. Years later, Caligula got rid of the consuls as well as the Senate, which made Rome under the authority of an autocrat. His excessive cruelty continued and by 41 AD, he was murdered by the Praetorian Guard along with his wife and daughter.

Claudius

Caligula died without an heir, but his uncle, Claudius, had bribed the Praetorian Guard to support him in his ambition to be proclaimed as princeps. The Praetorian Guard had a lot to lose if they did not support him, so he was confirmed as princeps, high priest, and emperor days after the death of Caligula. Unfortunately for Rome and Claudius’ enemies, he was as vicious as the past emperors. He executed many of Rome’s senators and noblemen. The Roman troops were also successful in putting down the rebellion in Britain during Claudius’ reign.

Claudius had his wife, Messalina, executed after the discovery of her affair with another man and her part in a plot against him. He then married his niece Agrippina, adopted her son from a previous marriage, and renamed the boy as Nero. The emperor named the young boy as his heir, but the ambitious mother decided to poison Claudius after this to secure the position for her son.

Nero

Nero was just sixteen when Emperor Claudius died, and he was named as princeps after he bribed the Praetorian guards to secure his succession. Wary of any rival to his domination, he ordered the execution of Britannicus, Claudius’ son with Messalina, as well as the exile of Agrippina, his own mother.

Nero’s first five years as emperor were generally peaceful, but insanity seemed to run in his family, and he sank to the same corruption that affected the emperors before him. He had his own mother killed, became increasingly corrupt, wasted Rome’s tax money on his vices, and resumed the notorious treason trials started by Caligula. In addition, the Roman troops in Britain also went on a rampage and cruelly suppressed the tribes that lived there. Because of this event, the Celtic queen Boudica took her revenge by killing off the Roman troops stationed in Camulodunum (modern Colchester). She and her allies were eventually defeated, but the Romans in Britain reconsidered their views of the local tribes after this event.

Back home, Nero became more erratic, and his insanity became worse during the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. The Christians, long been a target for persecution, became Nero’s scapegoat for this event, and he punished them with a renewed viciousness that repelled the Romans even further. It was also during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were condemned to death in Rome. Nero turned so mad that he killed his wife Poppaea (who was pregnant at that time) during a rage and had a young boy castrated afterward so he could marry him.

The Romans finally had enough and in 68 AD, the Praetorian guards conspired against Nero to get rid of him. According to Roman biographer Suetonius, he stabbed himself to death after he was forced to flee Rome. The death of Nero ended the reign of the Julians in Rome which was soon followed by the Four Emperors and the Flavian Dynasty.

Stephen, whose name means “crown or glory,” was described by Luke in Acts 6:8 as “a man full of God’s grace and power, did great wonders and miraculous signs among the people.” Unfortunately, this powerful personality and faithfulness resulted in his death and turned him into the first Christian martyr. According to the Bible Timeline Chart, Stephen lived shortly after the time of Christ.

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The book of Acts did not offer Stephen’s origins. He came to the scene as one of the men appointed by the apostles to be in charge of the church’s food program for the poor. (Acts 6:7) His wisdom was so superior to others that he earned the anger of the members of the “Synagogue of the Freedmen” (Jews who were from parts of Libya, Egypt, and Asia Minor). They falsely accused him of blasphemy. Stephen was seized and brought in front of the Sanhedrin to face the accusations that were reinforced by false witnesses (Acts 6:8-15).

There were two accusations hurled against him by his enemies: first, that he spread the word that Jesus would destroy the temple in Jerusalem and second, that Jesus would change the customs laid down during the time of Moses. When asked by the high priest if the charges brought against him were true, Stephen delivered an enduring speech in front of the Sanhedrin (assembly). He showed his knowledge of Israel’s history from the time of Abraham in Mesopotamia to the time of Solomon and denounced the people for their persecution of the prophets.

This condemnation made Stephen’s enemies more furious and they covered their ears after he said that he saw “heaven open and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God.” The people dragged him out of the city and stoned him to death, but Stephen was able to ask the Lord to receive his spirit before he died. He also forgave the mob for this brutal and undeserved punishment for false accusations. Meanwhile, a man called Saul watched on with approval for Stephen’s death and planned to hound the believers of this new movement.

The Maya civilization reached its height during the Classic Period starting in 250 AD, according to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History. Hundreds of ceremonial centers were built in the lowlands of modern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, as well as some parts of Honduras and El Salvador. These ceremonial centers eventually evolved to become powerful kingdoms. At one point, their combined territories reached as much as 324,000 sq km. The kingdoms were never ruled by a single king or united under one government; instead, these independent kingdoms formed alliances and were sometimes at war with each other over resources.

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The Classic Period was marked by several Maya accomplishments including:
* the development of the 360-day Long Count Calendar and hieroglyphic writing system
* colorful (polychrome) and intricately designed ceramics
* the use of the corbelled arch in architecture
* the construction of magnificent palaces, pyramids, and ball courts

During the Early and Late Classic Periods, the Maya rulers chose to document their accomplishments and their kingdoms’ histories by inscribing them on dated monuments (stelae). Such as temples, pottery, and other artifacts that were later recovered from their ceremonial sites. Between these two periods was the hiatus period. This was marked by a decrease in the creation of the dated monuments and frequent wars between Central Maya lowland tribes.

The Late Classic Period was a prosperous one for the Maya. It was marked by an increase in population as well as an improvement in Maya monuments, architectural elements, and ceramics. The number of cities and towns grew, but so did conflicts and competition between rulers over the limited resources. By the end of this period, the Maya society became frayed because of the disputes between kingdoms, warfare, and changes in their environment. The construction of temples and other magnificent structures dwindled at this point until the ceremonial centers were completely abandoned.

The Americas were gradually settled by the migrating eastern Siberian peoples thousands of years ago via the Bering Land Bridge. Some of them moved on to parts of what is now the United States and Canada while others moved on to the countries of Central and South America in search of a more hospitable environment. Some groups stayed behind in Alaska and populated the coast while others went further inland into the Yukon and Northwest Territories of Canada. The Alaskan natives established their home in Unalakleet around 200 BC according to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History.

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One of the groups of people that stayed and thrived on the coast of Alaska (particularly Norton Sound) was the group of Yup’ik people called Unaligmiut (Unalirmiut) of Unalakleet. The remnants of their settlements date back to the ancient times and the first inhabitants of Unalakleet survived as hunter-gatherers and fishermen. They had seasonal camps and villages in the area but these first Alaskans sometimes traveled to follow the migration of fish (especially salmon), sea mammals, as well as animals on land.

To survive the harsh sub-arctic environment, they made clothes out of the skin of marine and land mammals, as well as birds. The clothes were waterproof and provided optimum warmth so they could withstand the cold. The descendants of the first Unaligmiuts still live in Unalakleet and other coastal areas of Alaska.

The First Punic War resulted in a massive loss to the Carthaginian side. They were forced to hand over several Mediterranean Sea territories over to Rome, including the islands of Sicily, Corsica, Lampedusa, and Ustica among others. These events led to the conquest of Spain starting in 236 BC according to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History.

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The Treaty of Lutatius specified that Carthage would need to pay a heavy ransom so their prisoners of war could be freed by Rome. Plus a heavy compensation of 3,200 talent of silver (2,200 was paid in ten installments and 1,000 paid immediately). The First Punic War ended Carthage’s domination of the profitable Mediterranean trade and pushed them to seek a new place to reestablish their control.

This humiliation deeply affected one of Carthage’s greatest generals, Hamilcar Barca. He decided to make up for this loss by sailing west into Iberia into what is now the Mediterranean coast of Spain. A new colony was to be established in Spain, and it would serve as a new power base for Carthage. More importantly, Hamilcar planned Iberia to be the new base for Carthage’s future revenge against Rome. He took with him his whole family, but before they set sail, Hamilcar offered sacrifices to the Phoenician god Melqart. Then he made his young son, Hannibal, “swear that he would never become a friend to the Romans.” Hannibal agreed and Hamilcar, along with his family and some settlers, sailed to Spain.

They reached Spain in 236 BC and set up a base in Gadir (present day Cadiz) as the center of Carthage’s new colony. According to Greek historian Polybius, Hamilcar spent nine years colonizing the eastern coast of Spain. The young Hannibal would grow up far from his homeland. His father colonized Spain using a combination of force and diplomacy while spies were sent to the Italian Alps in the north to look for a vulnerable place where they could invade. Hamilcar drowned in the Jucar River during an escape from the Celtic stronghold of Helike.

Hamilcar was succeeded by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal the Fair, as governor of Iberia. He was killed in 221 BC by one of the slaves of a Celtic king for revenge. His brother-in-law, Hannibal Barca, ruled the colony after his death and plotted his vengeance against Rome.