Alphabetical Index to Bible Timeline – Page 41 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on February 6, 2015October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Pompeii, Destruction of

Pompeii was a city of ancient Rome, which is located in modern-day Naples. In 79 AD (where it is listed on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History), Pompeii and several other cities and villas were destroyed when Mount Vesuvius erupted. Affected areas were buried under very thick pumice and ashes.

Background of the City of Pompeii

According to researchers, Pompeii was established by the Oscans in the 7th or 6th BC. Eventually, the city was conquered by Rome, and it became a colony of the Romans in 80 BC. About 160 years after becoming a Roman colony, Pompeii was destroyed. At this time, the city had about 11,000 residents including a gymnasium, port and water system in operation.

Destruction-of_Pompeii — ‘The Last Day of Pompeii. Painting by Karl Brullov, 1830–1833.’

‘The Last Day of Pompeii. Painting by Karl Brullov, 1830–1833.’

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius caused the total destruction of the city. This has led to the death of all its inhabitants including the loss of properties that were buried in ash. Pliny the Younger, a witness of the volcano’s eruption, wrote a letter that documented the events during that fateful day. He also wrote in the letter a narration of how Pliny the Elder, his uncle who was the Roman fleet’s admiral, was killed after attempting to rescue affected citizens.

The location greatly impacted by Mount Vesuvius’ eruption was lost for at least 1500 years. However, it was rediscovered in 1599, and there was an even broader rediscovery about 150 years after by Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre, a Spanish engineer. When the site was discovered, there were several objects found throughout the place. It was also observed that these remnants appeared to be well-preserved due to lack of moisture and air.

Destruction of Pompeii

Pompeii was a prosperous town-city found near Mount Vesuvius. In fact, it had a thriving economy because of its agriculture. However, with the eruption of this volcano, several communities were devastated including Pompeii and Herculaneum.

According to studies, those who died from the volcanic eruptions suffered from intense heat and suffocation due to ash. Researchers have discovered that these people were exposed to as much as 250 degrees Celsius of heat, and the hot surges were at about 10 kilometers distance away from the event. This severe heat was enough to bring about death in spite of the fact that the people remained inside their houses.

After the eruption, several buildings including people and other properties at Pompeii were buried in tephra by about 12 different layers of this material. Historians have found evidence that the city of Pompeii was buried completely in November, contrary to what Pliny stated in his letter that the eruption occurred in August.

Archaeologists have discovered that the people who were buried in ash were wearing heavier and thicker clothing, which meant it was impossible for the eruptions to have taken place in August. Moreover, there were sealed wine fermenting jars, as well as coins that feature the 15th imperatorial acclamations of the emperor’s titles. Hence, it was impossible for these coins to have been minted prior to the middle of September. Thus, the accounts by Pliny that the volcanic eruption was in August may be proven to be inaccurate based on research and studies by scientists.

References:
http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79

Posted on February 5, 2015June 28, 2021 by Amy — 1 Comment

Laodicea Forbids Use of Epistles of Barnabas, Council of

In 363 AD where it can be found on the Biblical Timeline Chart, the Council of Laodicea officially forbade individuals from reading uncanonized books. Moreover, only canonical books of the Old and New Testament were supposed to be read in Church. This declaration was given out during the 59th canon, and it was followed by the 60th canon that included a list of the books that are not to be read.

There were Old Testament books that were found in the list, although the order in which they are listed was somewhat peculiar. The list involved the minor and major prophets, as well as Daniel. As for the New Testament, this included the seven recognized Catholic epistles, with 14 epistles by Paul, and letters to Hebrews.

Council_of_Laodicea_Forbids_Use_ofEpistles

In the 59th canon of Laodicea, several books were mentioned to have been included. These included the books of Kings, Chronicles, Joshua, Judges, Moses, Solomon, Job, Psalms of David and the 16 prophets. In the New Testament, the list included the Acts, 4 Gospels, and the letters of Paul. However, the Catholic epistles were not stated. During the time of the Antiochian Church, letters from Cosmas, Theodore, and a few others were denied of their apostolicity.

Council-of-Laodicea-Forbids-Use-of-Epistles-of-Barnabus-key

In the Council of Laodicea, Cyril of Jerusalem provided a list of scriptures that were considered to be divine. In the list, the Old Testament contained 22 books, and these books were arranged in a manner that is similar to what can be found in the present English Bible. Furthermore, Jeremiah was considered to be associated with the terms “Baruch and the Epistle”. As for the New Testament, all the books were indicated, with the exception of the Apocalypse.

In 365 AD, Archbishop Athanasius required the list to be written in order and must indicate canonical books that are considered as divine. He came up with list of the books of the Old Testament that was nearly similar with what Cyril has made. Although Esther was not a part of it and the Book of Ruth was included separately to form all the 22 books in the list.

Athanasius also mentioned that there were other non-canonical books, which were written by the prophets and not to be read in the church. These books included the Wisdom of Sirach, Wisdom of Solomon, Judith, Tobit, Esther, and the Apostles’ Doctrines. His list of the New Testament books included the Apocalypse, which was not on the list provided by Cyril. He also noted that there were numerous apocryphal books that were also considered as canonical such as Sirach, Baruch, Tobit and Daniel.

Council-of-Laodicea-Forbids-Use-of-Epistles-of-Barnabus-book

Basil of Caesarea formed a canon that agreed with the one prepared by Athanasius. There were some books that he believed belonged to a canon. These books included Baruch, Sirach, Wisdom, Daniel, Judith and Jeremiah.

As for the list by Gregory of Nazianzus, it was presented in a poetical structure. His list of the Old Testament books was similar with Athanasius, although he only mentioned all the canonical books. He also did not include the book of Esther. The New Testament list was also different since he failed to include Apocalypse, unlike what Athanasius did.

Overall, the Council of Laodicea banned several books including Barnabas, Nicodemus, Paul and Thecla, Paul and Seneca, Christ and Abgarus, 1 Clement, II Clement, The Apostles Creed, Mary, Magnesians, and Polycarp, to name a few.

References:
http://biblehub.com/library/davidson/the_canon_of_the_bible/chapter_vii_the_bible_canon.htm
http://reluctant-messenger.com/council-of-laodicea.htm
http://www.bible-researcher.com/canon5.html

Posted on February 4, 2015October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Nicaea, Council of

The Council of Nicaea was held in Bithynia, where Christian bishops met to reach a consensus about their stand on the Trinity. It was convened by Constantine I, a Roman Emperor, in the year 325 AD and is listed on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History during that period. The council was led by Bishop Hosius of Corduba and believed to be a Papal delegate. The Council was able to form an agreement as to the Christological issue involved in the relationship of the son to God-the-father, as well as the creation of the first part of the Nicene Creed. Also, the council also aimed to settle a definite time of observing Easter, as well as the spread of the early canon laws.

About the Council of Nicaea

Prior to the Council, there were disagreements in terms of the nature of the God-the-son, as well as its relationship to God-the-father. This issue existed within the religious in the Church of Alexandria. Furthermore, there were arguments as to the nature of the son whether he was indeed begotten by God-the-father, or he was merely created and existed out of nothing. Athanasius and Alexander of Alexandria held the first position while Arius had the second position. After much deliberation, the Arians lost to about 250 to 318 attendees in the council decided against the presbyters. The Council also resulted in an agreement based on the definite time to celebrate Easter. This occasion was considered as the most significant feasts in the church calendar. Primarily, the Council discussed various areas of Christology, and it was the first of several other councils that were held.

‘Bronze statue of Constantine I in York, England, near the spot where he was proclaimed Augustus in 306.’

Purpose of the Council of Nicaea

Emperor Constantine asked all the Christian Church bishops to convene and come to Nicaea, and the main purpose was to resolve any disagreements that caused divisions and issues in the Church. Primarily, the Council was based on the recommendations of the group under the leadership of Hosius of Cordoba. There were controversies by the Arians, and most bishops agreed that Arius’ teachings were conflicting to the Christian faith, as well as heretical.

Hence, in 325 AD, bishops from various provinces came to Nicaea. This place was set as the location of the first Council because of its accessibility to all delegates coming from various parts of the world. Including Armenia, Egypt, Georgia, Thrace, Greece, Syria, Asia Minor, and Palestine.

The Council of Nicaea was the very first important council in the church’s history ever since the Council of Jerusalem was held. The Apostolic Council was created to provide certain conditions that the Gentiles should follow to be able to become a part of the Church. The Council aimed to make an organized step to define the doctrines and prevent heretical teachings and theologies.

About 1800 bishops coming from the east and west attended the Council, although only a smaller number of these religious leaders attended. These delegates were from all the regions of the Roman Empire, with the exception of Britain. Bishops from the east made up most of the attendees, and these included Alexander of Alexandria, Macarius of Jerusalem and Eustathius of Antioch.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Nicaea
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11044a.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hosius_of_Corduba#mediaviewer/File:THE_FIRST_COUNCIL_OF_NICEA.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#mediaviewer/File:Constantine,_York_Minster.jpg

Posted on February 3, 2015October 4, 2017 by Amy — 1 Comment

Nicene Creed

The Nicene Creed that listed is on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History during 378 AD refers to the Christians’ profession of faith, which is recited in liturgical celebrations. The term was adopted in the Nicaea, a city where the Council of Nicaea was held in 325 AD. However, it is in a different form than the ones used at present in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Catholic Church, Anglican Communion, Oriental Orthodox Churches, Protestant denominations or the Church of the East. In the West, the Apostles’ Creed is recited, although this is not found in Eastern liturgies. As for the Catholic Church, the profession of faith includes the Nicene Creed. Byzantine Rites include the recitation or singing of the Nicene Creed at Divine Liturgies. This Creed precedes the Eucharistic Prayer, which is recited daily.

Forms of Nicene Creed The Nicene Creed has two forms, and these have several designations with distinct meanings. For instance, the Nicene Creed is about the original version of the creed that was created in the Council of Nicaea. However, it was eventually used to refer to the revised version, and into the Latin version of additional phrases such as the Filioque and Deum de Deo. As for the Armenian Version, this included the phrase God from God, among a few others. As for the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, it refers to Constantinople’s revised version of the creed, as well as a few other versions. When the Creed is sung in Latin, this profession of faith is usually called Credo.

Nicene_Creed_papyrus — ‘Oldest extant manuscript of the Nicene Creed, dated to the 5th Century.’

‘Oldest extant manuscript of the Nicene Creed, dated to the 5th Century.’

Significance of the Creed

The creed was created to establish a definite doctrinal statement of the Church’s belief. Furthermore, the Nicene Creed was made during the time of the controversy among the Arians. In Alexandria, a Libyan presbyter named Arius stated that while God-the-Son was divine, he was not co-essential with God-the-father because he was born as a being. Hence, Jesus was less than God-the-father, and this stirred up some conflicts in terms of the doctrine about the Holy Trinity. In the Nicene Creed, it provides an affirmation of the Son’s co-essential divinity, which means he was primarily consubstantial. In the 381 version of the Creed, the Holy Spirit was referred to as glorified and worshipped along with the Son and Father. As for the Athanasian Creed, it offered more details about the relationship of the Trinity. The Apostles’ Creed, on the other hand, lacked any statements about the Holy Spirit and the Son’s divine nature.

Nicene_Creed_Trinity — ‘Holy Trinity, fresco by Luca Rossetti da Orta, 1738–9 (St. Gaudenzio Church at Ivrea)’

‘Holy Trinity, fresco by Luca Rossetti da Orta, 1738–9 (St. Gaudenzio Church at Ivrea)’

Further Details about the Nicene Creed

In 325 AD, the Nicene Creed was adopted by the Council of Nicaea. After the council, there was a new formula of the profession of faith that existed, and these are merely intended to counter the different phases of Arianism.

The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed was adopted during the 381 AD in the Second Ecumenical Council, and this intended to modify the Nicene Creed created in 325 AD. It is also an ecumenical profession of the Christian faith, which was accepted by the Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, most Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic. On the other hand, the Athanasian and Apostles’ Creeds were not accepted widely by most Christians.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed
http://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/creeds/nicene-creed
http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/what-we-believe/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed#mediaviewer/File:Nicaea_icon.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity#mediaviewer/File:Luca_Rossetti_Trinit%C3%A0_Chiesa_San_Gaudenzio_Ivrea.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed#mediaviewer/File:Rylands_Nicene_Creed_papyrus.jpg

Posted on February 2, 2015October 4, 2017 by Amy — 1 Comment

Adrianople, Battle of

The Battle of Adrianople (otherwise referred to as the Battle of Hadrianopolis)occurred in 378 AD where it is recorded on the Biblical Timeline With World History. It was the battle between the Gothic rebels and the Roman army. This gruesome battle took place in the northern part of Adrianople, which is in modern-day European Turkey. The battle was a victorious one for the Goths, and Emperor Valens of the Roman army died.

Based on historians, this battle signalled the start of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West. It was also noted as a part of the Gothic War that was fought between 376 to 382 AD. The Battle of Adrianople included an army coming from the eastern portion of the Roman Empire, and it outlasted the empire’s west by about 1000 years.

Background of the Battlefield

After the defeat of the Goths in 376 AD, they were allowed to enter and remain in the Roman Empire. At that time, Emperor Valens was the ruler of the empire, and he hoped the Goths, under the leadership of Fritigern and Alavivus, would become soldiers and farmers. Hence, Valens gave the Goths a chance to become the Empire’s allies or a ‘foederati’.

Battle_of_Adrianople_Goths_vs_Romans — ‘The 3rd-century Great Ludovisi sarcophagus depicts a battle between Goths and Romans.’

‘The 3rd-century Great Ludovisi sarcophagus depicts a battle between Goths and Romans.’

Unfortunately, Maximus and Lupinicus, provincial commanders of the Roman Empire, convinced the Goths to revolt against Valens. This occurred once the newcomers crossed the Danube. As a result, Valens asked Gratian, his nephew and Emperor from the West for help to fight these rebel Goths. So he gave Valens reinforcements, including Richomeres the head of Gratian’s guards. For two years, there were battles that had started even before the Battle of Adrianople. In 378, Emperor Valens decided to leave Antioch and headed towards Constantinople. He ordered his general Sebastianus to reorganize the army of the Roman Empire that was situated in Thrace. With 2000 soldiers, Sebastianus went to Adrianople and ambushed a small group of Goths. Meanwhile, Fritigern formed the Gothic army at Beroe and Nicropolis, so they can fight the Romans. On August 8, 378 AD, Fritigern wanted to propose peace and to form an alliance in exchange for some territories of the Roman Empire. Valens did not agree with his proposals, although he was unaware that there was a group of Goths foraging further away, which meant he did not have any numerical superiority against their opponents.

The next day, Valens left his administration and imperial treasury at Adrianople under the care of his guard of legions. He received a warning that the Gothic camp was located in the northern part of the city. Hence, he arrived at the said location after bearing the difficulty of marching over the rough terrain for 7 hours.

When the Roman troops came at the site where the Goth had built their camp, they were left exhausted and in disorder. The Goths held the stronger position throughout the battle and this led to the defeat of the Romans. The Emperor was believed to have died during this battle, although there was still some uncertainty as to the cause of his death.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople
http://www.roman-empire.net/army/adrianople.html
http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/Mediterranean/Adrianople.html

Posted on January 31, 2015August 19, 2016 by Amy — Leave a comment

Marcus Aurelius Probus

Marcus Aurelius Probus served as the emperor of Rome from 276 to 282 AD where he is located on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History. He handled strengthening the Danube and Rhine frontiers, and he won wars against various tribes including the Franks, Vandals, Goths, Longiones and Burgundians. Thus, he was known as one of Rome’s greatest rulers because of his commitment, dedication, excellent leadership and vision in making the Empire a powerful one.

‘Probus
47th Emperor of the Roman Empire.’

Career

In 250 AD, Probus joined the army, where Emperor Valerian appointed him as a military tribune. Eventually, he was assigned to govern the East, which was the order by Tacitus. However, when Tacitus died, Probus became the new emperor. During his reign as emperor, Probus travelled to various parts of the empire, particularly the west, where he defeated the Goths. Probus was victorious during his campaigns against the Longiones and Alamanni, which were tribes that entered the Roman territory through the Neckar Valley. As for Probus’ generals, they were able to defeat the Franks, and this allowed the Romans to eliminate Burgundians and Franks in Gaul. This gave Probus the right to obtain new titles during his time as emperor, which were Germanicus Maximus and Gothicus Maximus.

Marcus_Vineyard — ‘As a ruler, one of his goals was to keep his soldiers preoccupied in performing useful and worthwhile tasks. For instance, he assigned them to plant vineyards.’

As a ruler, one of his goals was to keep his soldiers preoccupied in performing useful and worthwhile tasks. For instance, he assigned them to plant vineyards in Pannonia and Gaul, among a few other districts. By doing so, the empire was able to enhance the economy in these areas that were devastated by wars. Also, Probus allowed the Germanic tribes to remain in the empire’s devastated areas.

Another important contribution of Probus was his battle against the Vandals. He fought against this tribe in the years 279 to 280. During these years, his generals were also quite successful in defeating a group of people called Blemmyes in Egypt. Then, he initiated a project that was intended to reconstruct the canals and bridges found along the Nile. This project provided the empire with a greater area where grain can be produced.

During the years 280 to 280, there were three usurpers that threatened the empire, who were Proculus, Bonosus, and Julius Saturninus. Probus was successful in defeating these people, although there were insufficient details regarding the extent of the revolts that they led. Just before Probus could begin his campaigns in the eastern part of the empire, his plans were delayed due to rebellions events at the West.

Death

While Probus was away, his Praetorian Prefect named Carus gained support from the soldiers to obtain power. When Probus learned about this, he sent his troops to suppress the rebels, but they decided to side with Carus. Meanwhile, the remaining troops who were with Probus switched sides and killed him in a place near Sirmium in the year 282. When Probus died, Carus became the emperor. There is more than one story of his death written in History, but this one seems to be the most accepted.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Probus
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12446a.htm
http://finds.org.uk/romancoins/emperors/emperor/id/60
http://pixabay.com/en/vineyards-wine-wine-harvest-259860/
http://pixabay.com/en/death-graveyard-cemetery-creepy-557025/

Posted on January 30, 2015August 19, 2016 by Amy — Leave a comment

Tacitus (Historian)

Tacitus was one of Rome‘s historians and senators; he is located on the Bible Timeline Chart with History starting around 275 AD. Tacitus was known for his significant works called the Histories and the Annals. These works by Tacitus were written to provide information about the reigns of some of Rome’s emperors including Nero, Claudius, Tiberius, as well as other rulers who led the empire in 69 AD. His works presented the Roman Empire’s rich history beginning with Augustus‘ death in 14 AD up to 70 AD where the Jewish-Roman war was held. Tacitus also wrote about other subjects including the life of Agricola, who was his father-in-law, Roman general and was a primary figure in conquering Britain. Indeed, Tacitus was noted as one of the greatest historians in the world. His Latin was noted for its compactness, accuracy and brevity. He also had impressive concepts of the psychology behind politics.

Background

Tacitus _Historian_Italy — The exact place of his origins is not set, but it is speculated he is from Italy.

The exact place of his origins is not set, but it is speculated he is from Italy.

There were some assumptions that his father was Cornelius Tacitus, a man who was a procurator of Germania and Belgica. Moreover, there were some uncertainties as to his birthplace, although some scholars claim that he might have been born in northern Italy, Gallia Belgica or Gallia Narbonensis. An assumption that he was from Gallia Narbonensis was due to the fact that he was married to Gnaeus Julius Agricola’s daughter, who was a Narbonensian. As for the theory that Tacitus came from northern Italy, another story leads to that claim by some historians. According to studies, Tacitus showed dedication to a man named Fabius Lustus, which may show possible connections with Spain. Tacitus was said to have been friends with Pliny, who lived in northern Italy. However, there was no valid evidence supporting claims that Pliny and Tacitus came from a similar background. Other scholars suggest that Tacitus may be a Celt. This was brought about by his oratories that showed a sense of sympathy to the barbarians who, at that time, resisted the rule of Romans. In historical accounts, the Celts that were occupying Gaul before the Romans came were regarded for their oratory and skill.

Tacitus _Historian_law — ‘Tacitus was well-trained in politics and law.’

Career

Tacitus was well-trained in politics and law, and he was assumed to have studied under the guidance of Quintilian. As for his family life, he was married to Julia Agricola, although there were minimal accounts about his domestic life.

He gained the latus clavus or title of senator while under Vespasian. However, it was not until the year 81 or 82 that Tacitus formally began his political life where he served as a quaestor (public official). Soon, he became a praetor (commander or elect magistrate) and a quindecimvir (one of the fifteen members in a college with ‘priestly duties’), where he was a member of a group that was in charge of secular games and Sibylline Books. Afterwards, he became an orator and lawyer famous for his public speaking skills, which was ironic considering his name means “silent”.

From 89 to 93 AD, Tacitus served in several provinces, and he was either in a civilian post or a commander of a legium. He had excellent military skills, and this enabled him to save him and his property during the reign of terror under the rule of Domitian in 81 to 96 AD.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus
http://www.livius.org/person/tacitus/
http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/historianstacitus/a/Tacitus.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaestor
http://pixabay.com/en/pisa-dom-leaning-tower-italy-171312/
http://pixabay.com/en/courthouse-building-school-law-303370/

Posted on January 29, 2015August 19, 2016 by Amy — Leave a comment

Diocletian

During the years 284 to 305 AD where he can be found listed on the Bible Timeline with World History, Diocletian served as the emperor of Rome. While his family was not of great nobility, he was able to rise and gain success when he pursued a career in the military. Under the reign of Emperor Carus, Diocletian served as a cavalry commander. When Carus died, Diocletian started his rule as the new emperor. Although Carinus, the son of Carus, tried to claim this position, he died from his defeat during the Battle of the Margus. Hence, Diocletian decided to strengthen his empire, and this ended the “Crisis of the Third Century“.

In 293 AD, Diocletian decided to appoint some people to be his co-emperors including Constantius and Galerius. He wanted each of his co-emperors to rule over the empire’s four divisions. Emperor Diocletian decided to secure the borders of the Roman Empire further and prevent rebels from penetrating it. He was successful in defeating the Carpi and Sarmatians, which occurred in his campaigns during 285 or 299 AD. Other victorious fights were against Egypt and Alamanni.

Diocletian_Palace — ‘Reconstruction of the Palace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian in its original appearance upon completion in 305, by Ernest Hébrard’

‘Reconstruction of the Palace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian in its original appearance upon completion in 305, by Ernest Hébrard’

With the help of Galerius, Diocletian was able to succeed in fighting against Sassanid, Persia. Ctesiphon, its capital, was also conquered by the empire through the initiatives of Diocletian. In fact, he was able to make certain negotiations with his opponents, and this allowed him to gain long-term peace in his empire. Eventually, Diocletian decided to separate the military and civil services of the empire, and this helped strengthen while improving the different aspects of the Roman Empire’s bureaucratic government. Various places also had their own administrative centers including Trier, Antioch, Mediolanum and Nicomedia, these centers were now much closer to the frontiers of the empire. Thus, the emperor became more focused on becoming an autocrat. He did everything he could to promote the success of the empire through more construction projects, engaging in more campaigns, and promoting military and bureaucratic growth. Imperial taxation during his reign also became standardized beginning about 297 AD.

Diocletian_Christians_last_prayers — ‘The Christian Martyrs’ Last Prayer, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883)’

‘The Christian Martyrs’ Last Prayer, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883)’

Challenges

There were some challenges that made it difficult for Diocletian to undertake all of his plans. For instance, his Edict on Maximum Prices ended up being counterproductive which failed to achieve positive results that he expected. Furthermore, the tetrarchic system that Diocletian established soon collapsed. Lastly, the Diocletianic Persecution that took place in 303 to 311 AD was not able to gain any success in destroying the Christian community of the empire. This was the largest and most gruesome persecution directed to Christians. In fact, the empire took Christianity as its preferred religion under the rule of Constantine.

Although there were failures along the way, Diocletian had several reforms that delivered massive changes on the imperial government of Rome. These changes also made the empire’s economy and military become more stable and stronger.

In 305, Diocletian decided to leave the imperial office due to a severe illness. He was the very first Roman emperor in history who left the position voluntarily.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian
http://www.roman-empire.net/decline/diocletian.html
http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/emperors/ig/Roman-Emperors/Diocletian.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution#mediaviewer/File:Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian#mediaviewer/File:Diocletian%27s_Palace_(original_appearance).jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian#mediaviewer/File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_(284-305_d.C.)_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg

Posted on January 28, 2015October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

White God (Cortes, Columbus), Native Americans belief in

The Chilam Balam, a book by Jaguar priests in the Yucatan, speaks of the coming of a white bearded man who is believed to bear the sign of the Almighty God. This is marked on the Biblical Timeline with History during 300 AD. Based on the books, Quetzalcoatl is bound to return someday. The writings of the Native Americans refer to the Quetzalcoatl God-man and the historic Quetzalcoatl, with the latter performing a duty as a Toltec ruler who gave messages of peace to mankind. This man eventually suffered at the hands of the religious high priests, who made plots against him that cost him his life. In addition, there was God Quetzalcoatl, who was present during the creation of the world. In fact, he was also one of the four directional Gods, associated with the wind, rain, and four cardinal directions. Moreover, he was known as the “White God of the West”, just like his father. He is known as the God of civilization, and was the one who gave the world the arts, calendar, science, and corn.

Native_Americans_belief_in_White_God_ — Hernan Cortez

Reportedly the native Americans believed that Hernan Cortes, an invader, was indeed the Quetzalcoatl, who came back to the world. There are insufficient proofs that this belief has a factual basis, yet Cortes claimed it as true. The MesoAmericans were not bearded people, and Cortes appeared to have some resemblance to the white bearded man. Some scholars suggest that the missionaries made up this story, and that the prophecies of the pre-conquest Chilam Balam were generated during the time that the Spanish people colonized the Caribbean. Some scholars also believe that there was an alteration with the dates in which the Chilam Balam books were written. They suggest that these changes were made by the Spanish with the hopes of making the people believe that Cortes was indeed the white-bearded man who was anticipated to return one day.

‘Kukulkan at Chichen Itza during the Equinox.’

Michael John Wells Finley wrote a text pointing out that the references in the Katun 13 Ahau with the Cabal-chen coincide with the time the Spanish came to the Yucatan. On the other hand, there were records that the coming of the Kulkulcanis was associated with Katun 4 Ahau. There is a possibility that the authors replaced Kulkulcan with the Christian God, as well as other relevant facts about the Katun.

Also the Hopi’s also believed that a lost white brother will return in the future when the world ends. The tribe anticipates the return of Pahana or the lost white brother, just like the Aztecs expected the coming of Quetzalcoatl, which is similar to the belief of the Mayans that Kukulcan or the white bearded god will come once again.

Francisco Pizarro

Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador who traveled to South America to take control of the Incas to gain their riches and gold. It is recorded that the Incas treated him like the God ‘Viracochas’ due to his white skin, armor, and their guns that emitted loud thunderings and sparks that looked like lightning. The damage that followed was also very intimidating.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_gods
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_religion
http://are.as.wvu.edu/ruvolo.htm
http://pixabay.com/en/quetzalcoatl-aztec-kulkulcan-279886/
http://www.witzmountain.com/2012_Hopi2.html
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Malinche_con_Cortes.JPG
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kukulkan#mediaviewer/File:ChichenItzaEquinox.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro
http://history.stackexchange.com/questions/5637/how-come-incas-believed-that-the-spanish-were-the-incarnation-of-their-thunder

Posted on January 27, 2015October 4, 2017 by Amy — 15 Comments

Scythians and Cimmerians

According to scholars, the Scythians and Cimmerians were identified with a large population of the Lost Israelites tribes that were once in exile. They are located on the Bible Timeline Chart with History during 200 BC. There are accounts from the Assyrians that the Cimmerians were partly Israelite.

The Cimmerians, in particular, were a group of Indo-Europeans that lived in the northern part of Caucasus and the Azov Sea, about 1300 BC. By the 8th century BC, the Scythians drove them southward and into Anatolia. The Cimmerians were considered Iranians while others referred to them as Thracians.

After they had left the Pontic steppe, these people decided to head off to Anatolia and succeeded in conquering Phrygia in the years 696 to 695 BC. They reached the pinnacle of their success when they took over Sardis, Lydia‘s capital, in 652 BC. However, they quickly reached their decline, specifically when they were defeated by the Alyattes between the years 637 and 626 BC. After their defeat, there was a lack of information about this group of people, although there were assumptions that they remained in Cappadocia.

Scythians_and_Cimmerians_Cappadocia — ‘Fairy Chimneys rock formation nearby Göreme, in Cappadocia’

‘Fairy Chimneys rock formation nearby Göreme, in Cappadocia’

There were minimal details in terms of the origin of this tribe. Some possibilities are that the Cimmerians had some relations with the Thracians or Iranians. Historians claim that these people may have been under the rule of an elite Iranian background.

Herodotus, a Greek historian, noted that the Cimmerians once lived in the regions on the north coast of the Black Sea and Caucasus. These places are nearby modern-day Russia and Ukraine. However, Renate Rolle, an archaeologist, claimed that there was an absence of evidence that the Cimmerians settled in the southern portion of Russia.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, most scholars accepted the accounts of Herodotus in terms of the origin of the Cimmerians. However, Sir Henry Layard had different claims about this tribe. His studies opened up new sources that are centuries older than what were stated by Herodotus. In the Assyrian records, the Cimmerians were situated in a kingdom that was not distant from Urartu. This was the Iron Age Kingdom, which was located around Armenian’s highland called Lake Van, a place in the southern part of Caucasus.

The Israelites were brought to the center portion of Assyria. Eventually, warriors of Israelite and Syrian descent became a part of the Assyrian armies. They also gained influence and power, and they were taken to Mannae for training. Mannae was among the places were the Cimmerians were believed to have settled.

Historically, Mannae became the center of the Scythian tribe. These people were one with the Cimmerians, and the two tribes even lived and functioned in the similar geographical zones. In fact, the names of these two groups of people have become rather interchangeable in most Assyrian books and historical sources.

References:
http://britam.org/cimmerians-scythians.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerians
http://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Cimmerians_Herodotus_Scythians_Pontic_area_Black_Sea_area_Caucaaus_Near_East_Anatolia_nomads
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelites#mediaviewer/File:Mosaic_Tribes.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cappadocia#mediaviewer/File:Cappadocia_Chimneys_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg