Category: Bible Timeline Chart

The Achaemenid Empire began in 550 BC but went through a period of long and slow decline over its 220-year history. The end of the Persian Government occurred around 330 BC according to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History. Palace intrigue and revolts from other territories contributed to the deterioration, but the most potent yet unexpected threat to the Persian Empire was the rise of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great. A man of great ambitions, he inherited his father’s professional Macedonian army and was backed by Greek forces who resented the Persian invasion in their lands.

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The court of the last three Achaemenid kings was full of intrigue and violence according to Greek historian Diodorus. It was said that the Persian king Artaxerxes III was murdered by his own eunuch and military official Bagoas who replaced him with the king’s youngest son Arses (Artaxerxes IV). To ensure that only he would influence the king, Bagoas had Arses’ brothers killed as well. However, this act angered the new king. Bagoas had Arses and his whole family killed after he found that the new king was not as cooperative as he had hoped.

Bagoas then replaced Arses with the royal family’s distant relative Darius III whom he thought would be easier to control. He planned to get rid of the new king again when he found that Darius III would not submit to him, but the new Persian king was aware of his plans. The ill-fated Bagoas was forced to drink the poison he prepared for Darius.

The rise of Alexander and his forces proved too much for Darius III and the Persian army and their allies were first defeated in the Battle of Granicus in Anatolia. He was then forced to flee to Persia when he and his forces were defeated by Alexander at the Battle of Issus. Alexander turned south to the Persian territories of Phoenicia instead of pursuing Darius into Achaemenid heartland. Sidon, Aradus, and Byblos immediately surrendered when faced with a strong army. Tyre held out—with devastating consequences. The Phoenician city was besieged by Alexander’s forces and it resulted in a massacre of many of the city’s residents.

The city of Gaza also experienced the same fate as Tyre. This ended the Persian domination in the cities on the Asian coast of the Mediterranean. On the other hand, the Egyptians frequently rebelled against their Persian rulers in the past so it was not surprising that they welcomed the Macedonian king and his forces to get rid of the Persians. After he had established a Greco-Macedonian government in Phoenicia, Palestine, and Egypt, Alexander marched back to Asia and met Darius III in the battle for the last time. He defeated Darius in the Battle of Gaugamela near Arbela and the Persian king fled to Ecbatana to raise another army. He and Alexander were not fated to meet again as he would be killed by the Bactrian satrap Bessus, who proclaimed himself king after the murder of Darius.

Alexander used the opportunity to present himself as the legitimate king and heir of the vast Persian empire by “avenging” the death of Darius. He had Darius’ body sent back to Persepolis in a funeral fit for his status as the former king of Persia and had him buried properly. Alexander then proclaimed himself ruler of the Persian empire and ended the 220-year Persian rule in parts of western and central Asia, as well as North Africa.

Philip II and the Rise of Macedonia

Few kings and their sons could boast of making their kingdoms the most influential in the ancient world. This was an achievement for Philip II and his son Alexander the Great of Macedonia. According to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History, this lasted between 301 and 146 BC. Alexander was one of the most extraordinary conquerors in his own right. It was his father who nurtured his ambition and set the stage for his conquest including some parts of North Africa and Asia.

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Before Philip became king of Macedonia, the kingdom bordered Greece city-states. The Macedonians were considered as ‘barbarians’ by the Greeks. Philip was held as a hostage in Thebes during the reign of his brother Alexander II. Because of this, he learned Greek military techniques. Alexander II was succeeded by another brother called Perdiccas III but was killed in a battle against the Illyrians. Philip was then brought back to Macedonia to claim the throne.

To secure his reign and strengthen his military, Philip chose not to fight the Athenians and gave them the city of Amphipolis as part of a treaty. The Illyrians and Paeonians were threats to Macedonia early in his reign, but he defeated both when he was confident that his army was strong enough to invade his northwestern neighbors. Their use of a long spear called sarissa made the Macedonian forces one of the most formidable of that time. He then set his sights on Thessaly, conquered the city of Larissa, and acquired the defeated troops to boost the Macedonian forces.

He was now confident enough to attack Athens after these spectacular victories. He started by taking back Amphipolis. Because of this, Philip had access to the rich silver and gold mines of Mount Pangaeus and added its riches to the Macedonian treasury. He stopped short of Thermopylae because a strong alliance among the Athenian, Spartan, and Achaean barred him from entering the pass.

Philip was also a master of making alliances through marriage. He created an alliance with the Illyrians on the western coast by marrying the Illyrian princess Audata, as well as Olympias of Epirus. He also married Phila of Elimeia, Meda of Odessos, Nicesipolis of Thessaly, and Cleopatra Eurydice, who was a Macedonian noblewoman.  The mother of Philip III Arrhidaeus was a minor wife or concubine named Philinna of Larissa.

Philip would later capture the city of Olynthus which raised concerns among the Greeks. He was smart enough not to push for war but made peace with the Greeks and became part of the Delphic Amphictyony (council). His wealth bought him friends and allies from the Greek side, but this tactic also made him enemies who were concerned with the dangers he posed to Athenian domination.

Philip’s victory over the Greeks in Chaeronea earned him several peace treaties with the rulers of the city-states. His son Alexander helped him earn this victory, and Philip became the leader (hegemon) of the League of Corinth, also known as the Hellenic League. He set his sights on the Achaemenid empire as he was advised years earlier by the Athenian orator Isocrates. Philip was assassinated by his own bodyguard Pausanias of Orestis. His son Alexander III rose to fulfill his father’s ambition of conquering Asia.

Alexander’s Asian Conquest

It seemed that Philip himself blessed Alexander when he said that his son should “look thee out a kingdom equal to and worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee”(Plutarch) after taming the warhorse Bucephalus. Alexander inherited a disciplined and professional military from his father, who made the soldiers serve full time rather than allow them to work as farmers when they were not at war. He also had the support of the Greeks who were resentful of the repeated attacks made by the Persian army on their homeland. They contributed their troops to Alexander’s to form one formidable force.

He crossed from Europe to Anatolia in 334 BC where he won the Battle of Granicus against the satraps and allied Greek mercenaries of Darius III. Darius himself commanded a large army when he and Alexander met in the Battle of Issus in Cilicia. But Darius was soundly defeated and was forced to flee to Persia. Alexander then chose to march to the most vulnerable territories of the Achaemenid Empire: Palestine, Phoenicia, and Egypt.

The Phoenician cities of Sidon, Byblos, and Aradus surrendered without bloodshed to Alexander’s army. But the rulers of Tyre defied him, so Alexander besieged the city until it fell in 332 BC. Most of its citizens were killed while the women and children were sold into slavery. Gaza would suffer the same fate while the conquest of Egypt was easy enough for the Macedonian ruler because of the Egyptian’s resentment against their Persian rulers. He founded the coastal city of Alexandria which went on to become one of the greatest cities of the Mediterranean.

After securing Palestine, Phoenicia, and Egypt, Alexander, and his troops marched back to face Darius one more time in the Battle of Gaugamela near Arbela (modern Erbil in Iraqi Kurdistan). Darius was defeated, and he fled to Ecbatana where he tried to raise an army to fight Alexander once again but was murdered by the Bactrian satrap Bessus. Alexander “avenged” the death of the Persian king and ordered the execution of Bessus, but he was also motivated to execute Bessus so it would look like he was the rightful heir to the Persian throne.

He acquired Bactria and Sogdiana when he claimed the Persian empire, and he sent expeditions to India to expand his empire. The northwestern frontiers of Pakistan and India would be the limit of Alexander’s Asian empire after he won several important battles there. He came back to Babylon and stayed there until his death in 323 BC at the age of 32. Even after his death, Alexander of Macedon would be remembered as one of the greatest generals in history.

Partition of Alexander’s Empire

After Alexander’s death in Babylon, a war broke out among his successors including his family, friends, and generals. The Wars of the Diadochi included Alexander’s somatophylakes or bodyguards, various Macedonian satraps, Macedonian royalties close to Alexander, and non-Macedonian generals. Macedonia was ruled by the Antipatrid dynasty after the Wars of the Diadochi, but it was wrested from their hands by the founder of the Antigonid dynasty Antigonus I Monophthalmus. This dynasty ruled Macedonia until they lost the Battle of Pydna to the Romans.

Darius III (Codomannus) readied his troops in Anatolia, Syria, and Phoenicia when he heard that the young Alexander of Macedon and his troops crossed already crossed Asia from Europe. Darius had the Phoenician fleet on standby and five thousand Macedonian mercenaries led by Memnon of Rhodes on land to defend his territories. Phoenicia made a brave stand and resisted invasion as best they could, but were overcome and became a Greco-Macedonian Monarch during 332 BC according to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History. The Macedonian troops led by Alexander and the Persian troops led by Memnon along with the satraps of Asia Minor met on the banks of the Granicus River. The Persian troops lost the Battle of Granicus and Alexander would later defeat the Persian army led by Darius in the Battle of Issus.

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The Macedonian troops led by Alexander and the Persian troops led by Memnon along with the satraps of Asia Minor met at the banks of the Granicus River. The Persian troops lost the Battle of Granicus and Alexander would later defeat the Persian army led by Darius in the Battle of Issus.

The breakdown of the Persian rule now left the coast of Phoenicia open to Alexander and the Macedonian army. Left without a choice, the Phoenicians surrendered to Alexander immediately and the cities of Marathus, Mariamme, Sigon, and Aradus were the first ones to open the city gates. The cities of Byblos and Sidon also welcomed Alexander without bloodshed. Their kings were away in the service of the Persian-Phoenician fleet, but the city of Tyre held out against the Macedonian and Greek forces.

The Siege of Tyre started in 332 BC after Alexander requested the envoys of the city to allow him to make a sacrifice to Heracles in a temple of Melkarth in New Tyre. The Tyrians refused and asked him to make the sacrifice in a temple in Old Tyre instead—a refusal which Alexander took as a sign of rebellion against his authority. The people of the city of Tyre tried to defend themselves against Alexander and his army. They sent the women, children, and other vulnerable people to Carthage for safety. The Tyrians also fanned Alexander’s anger after they killed his negotiators.

Following an initial victory on the side of the Tyrians, Alexander called on his allies (including those from Phoenician cities of Sidon, Byblos, and Aradus) to send him additional fleets. The outnumbered Tyrians were taken by surprise. However, they defended the city until Alexander’s combined Greek and Macedonian troops entered and killed many people. Several were also sold into slavery, but the king and his family were spared. It took Alexander and his army seven months until they successfully conquered Tyre. He then removed the Tyrian king from his throne and replaced him with a man named Ballonymos.

Alexander ruled Tyre after the war and the Phoenicians’ trade with other Mediterranean ports resumed. Phoenician soldiers and sailors served in Alexander’s army and navy, while Phoenician shipbuilders provided Alexander with the ships, he needed for various campaigns. Before his death, Alexander planned to conquer the Persian Gulf with the help of the Phoenician navy. The plan was discontinued when Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC.

Nehemiah stayed as the governor of Judah for twelve years which started from the 20th year of King Artaxerxes I’s reign to his 32nd year. He led the people of Jerusalem in the reconstruction of the city wall, but they were strongly opposed by the foreigners who lived near them. Despite severe opposition, the wall was finally completed around 400 BC where it is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart. Over the years, the men who opposed Nehemiah continued to accuse him of rebellion against the Persian ruler. The most dangerous scenario was when Sanballat and Geshem plotted to harm Nehemiah. They sent him a message to meet them at one of the villages in the plain of Ono.

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After he had realized that this was a trap, Nehemiah refused to meet them. But despite years of intimidation and dangerous threats, the people continued to work. The wall of Jerusalem was finished on the 25th day of Elul (Nehemiah 6:15). The Levites, singers, and all the people of the city took part in the dedication of the wall.

This wall was expanded by Herod the Great and Agrippa I, but was destroyed during the First Jewish-Roman War in 70 AD.

The Nazca (or Nasca) is the name of the archeological culture that flourished in the southern coast of Peru between 100 BC and 650 AD. The Nazca coastal culture in Western South America is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History between 400 BC – 1000 AD. It was named after the Rio Grande de Nasca and located between the Ica and Nasca valleys. The Nazcas were related to the earlier Paracas culture which played a significant role in the development of their society as seen in both cultures’ art and religion.

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The weather in this coastal area was influenced by the Humboldt current which would bring fog but kept the area a dry sub-tropical desert. The Nazca people depended on agriculture, but the land was particularly prone to droughts, earthquakes, and flooding. They still managed to produce corn, beans, manioc, potatoes, sweet potatoes, peppers, and squash which became their staple foods. Cotton and wool from llamas and other highland animals were sources for textiles and were used for trade with other people. The Pacific Ocean was a good source of seals, fishes, and other seafood.

The Nazca people traded with other communities in Peru including the coastal Camaná province; grave goods identified as Nazca were found at cemeteries in the area. The use of wool from llamas and other highland animals were also present in Nazca sites. There were also feathers of rain forest birds that decorated the headdress of Nazca mummies.

Their villages were clustered from the Cañete Valley to Acari Valley with Nazca at its center. These villages were led by chieftains who were united through their religion, but there is no evidence of an important ruler or a central government. The chieftains served as shamans as well as warriors. Their depictions can frequently be seen on colorful Nazca pottery. They led Nazca rituals and usually used hallucinogenic drugs that were common in Peruvian culture. These drugs were derived from the San Pedro cactus (mescaline) and Angel’s trumpet tree.

Religion played a big part in the lives of the Nazca people, especially when they lived in an area that was prone to the above listed natural disasters. They also believed in animatism. These supernatural forces were evident in their ceramic arts. These had colorful depictions of mythological creatures that were believed to control their food and water supplies. The prominent religious center of the Nazca people was located in the Cahuachi, where remnants of pyramid temples can be found. It first served as a pilgrimage and burial site until it was used as a mortuary and offering area.

The most enduring legacy of the Nazca culture was the geoglyphs in Pampa de San Jose. These mysterious glyphs of unknown purposes were drawn on the desert surface to reveal the lighter soil underneath. The drawings vary from simple lines to a complicated representation of animals including a pelican, monkey, killer whale, hummingbird, and more. Whether it was for astronomical purposes or to indicate past water sources, the reason for the existence of these glyphs is still a mystery.

The book of Isaiah provides a very brief passage about Sargon II which tells of the Assyrian capture of the Philistine city of Ashdod by Sargon’s commander in chief (20:1). Sargon II is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart around 721 BC. The following verses (v 3-6) contain a prophecy of Egypt’s downfall after an Assyrian invasion and the retreat of their Ethiopian rulers (25th Dynasty). This was less than a hundred years later during the reign of Sargon’s son Sennacherib and grandson Esarhaddon. Although it was his brother Shalmaneser V, who laid siege to Samaria and successfully removed King Hoshea of Israel(2 Kings 17:5-6). Sargon initiated the second stage of deporting the people of the Northern Kingdom into other parts of Assyrian territories two years later (722 BC).

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Background

Sargon II (721-705 BC) reigned during the height of the Neo-Assyrian empire established by his father Tiglath-Pileser III. He was the younger brother of Shalmaneser V, who besieged Samaria for three years. Sargon removed his brother from the Assyrian throne probably after a violent coup. It seemed that no brotherly love was lost between them as his inscriptions described his brother as a godless tyrant. Shalmaneser only reigned for five years and was unpopular because of his taxation and labor policies. Apart from the Biblical passages about his invasion of Samaria, there are few surviving records of Shalmaneser’s reign.

When he became king, he took the name Sargon after the Akkadian king who reigned more than a thousand years before him. It means “he (God) made firm the king” and the change of name was a tactic used by Sargon the Great (2334-2279 BCE) of Akkad to legitimize his own rule.

Assyrian Heartland Rebellion and Other Victories

Whether the rebellion existed during Shalmaneser’s reign or it was the result of the violent removal of the former king, Sargon needed to deal with an uprising early in his reign. He successfully stopped this rebellion and brought about reforms to his empire’s taxation and labor laws.

He continued his father’s policy of expansion with the help of the mighty and professional Assyrian military. His victories included the destruction of Hamath in Syria whose leader Yau-bi’di (Jaubid) rebelled against Sargon along with other kingdoms in the Levant. He also crushed the kingdoms of Arpad, Damascus, and Israel in 720 BC. According to the Annals of Sargon, rebels from other Assyrian territories were resettled in Hamath, Damascus, and Samaria, while the people of these kingdoms were resettled elsewhere in the empire.

A long-time enemy of Sargon was Merodach-Baladan of Babylon. The Babylonian king allied against him with Khumbanigas, the king of Elam. But the Assyrian king defeated the Babylonian ruler and took Merodach-Baladan’s family as captives. He also looted the contents of the palace and destroyed the city of Dur-Iakin. He then conquered the Sumerian cities of Ur, Larsa, Kalu, Kisik, Orchoe (Uruk), and Erikhi.

In his annals, he boasted that he conquered Egypt, Phoenicia, Moschia (in Georgia), Syria, Media, and Elam. He also defeated the kings of Gaza and Cilicia and made the rulers of Egypt, Arabia, Saba (Sheba), and Libya pay tribute to him. The policy of uprooting and resettling rebellious kings and people were repeatedly stated in the Annals of Sargon.

Apart from the superior skills of Sargon’s warriors, the Assyrians also maintained an efficient spy system which ensured they were always one step ahead of their enemies. He used deception to conquer enemies, such as in the case of the invasion against the kingdom of Urartu (Armenia) ruled by King Rusa I. After deceiving Rusa into thinking he was going to attack Media; the Armenian king allowed his army to let their guards down. Sargon then turned his army and attacked Urartu.

The citizens were only spared because of Urartu’s efficient warning system and they fled, taking with them many of their goods. The Assyrians, finding few things to plunder, continued towards the Urartian city of Musasir. They successfully raided the temple of the god Haldi, as well as the palace storerooms.

Dur-Sharrukin

Sargon had to deal with a rebellion in the Assyrian heartland before he became king and because of this, he exiled the rebels into other parts of Assyria. He was not assured of the loyalty of his own people in the Assyrian capital of Kalhu, so he decided to build a new city with his own power base in Dur-Sharrukin. Its name meant “Sargon’s fortress” and located in what is now modern Khorsabad.

The fortification walls covered an area of up to 3 sq km (288 hectares) and was decorated with the best known Assyrian artworks, such as the Lamassu (human-headed winged bull), alabaster wall panels, and various sculpted reliefs. Today, these are on display in various museums such as the Iraq Museum in Baghdad, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, and Louvre Museum in Paris.

It was supposed to be a political, administrative, and trade center, but it was still dependent on Nineveh for most of its resources. The court was moved to Dur-Sharukkin in 706 BC, but it lost importance after the death of Sargon during the battle of Tabal in 706 BC. His son Sennacherib later made Nineveh the capital of the empire.

Apart from the Egyptians and the Canaanites, the Philistines were some of the first groups of people the ancient Israelites interacted with. They coexisted peacefully (such as in the time of the patriarchs), but this was broken when Israel emerged as a rival in territories and power in southern Levant during the early Iron Age. The was with the Arabs and the Philistines is listed on the Bible Timeline Chart around 700 BC.

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The Philistines, also known as Sea People, settled on the coast of Canaan around 1100 BC. They lived in what was known as a pentapolis of Philistia, which was a group of five cities. This included Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath. The cities were bordered by the land assigned to the tribe of Judah in the east and Dan in the north. The Philistines were the predominant military power in the area, and they repeatedly invaded Israel during the combined reigns of Saul and David.

One of the Arab tribes that came into contact with Israel is the Midianites who were traders (Genesis 37:28-36), allies (Exodus 18:1; Numbers 10:29), or enemies (Numbers 22; Joshua 13:21; Judges 6) at different periods in Israel’s existence. The rise of the tribes linked and their contact with Israel and Judah came later during the reign of Jehoshaphat (871 BC to 850 BC). The nomadic tribes lived in the wide expanse of the Arabian peninsula which bordered the territories of the Edomites and Arameans.

During the time of Saul and David, Israel had significant victories over the Philistines, but they also lost major battles against them. The Philistines were subdued during the time of Solomon (2 Chronicles 9:26) and some, along with the neighboring Arabs, paid tributes to Jehoshaphat during his reign (2 Chronicles 17:11).

The Philistines once again became Judah’s enemy during the reign of Jehoram (2 Chronicles 21:16). They banded together with Arabs to attack him. Jehoram’s palace was looted, and his wife and sons were taken as captives by his enemies. Only Ahaziah was left among his children.

A hundred years later Uzziah won battles against the Philistines and Arabs. He took the cities of Gath, Jabneh, and Ashdod, and rebuilt towns near the Philistine territory (2 Chronicles 26:6-7). The Philistines invaded towns in Judah during the reign of Uzziah’s grandson King Ahaz, but his son King Hezekiah defeated the Philistines and drove them back “as far as Gaza and its territory” (2 Kings 18:8).

The rebuilding of the temple started with Cyrus the Great but was completed under the reign of Darius I. This is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History about 500 BC.

After the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, the exiled Jews were absorbed into the vast Persian empire. Since the fall of Judah and their captivity in Babylon, the Jews had been looking forward to their liberation. It seemed that they looked on Cyrus the Great as the liberator they had been promised in Isaiah 45.

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Cyrus allowed the exiles to return to Judah and build a temple for God in Jerusalem by issuing a decree. Nearly 50,000 Jews traveled from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezra 2:64). They brought with them silver and gold, as well as other important articles from Solomon’s temple that were looted by Nebuchadnezzar. These were entrusted to the care of Sheshbazzar (Zerubbabel) and were carried to Jerusalem.

Rebuilding the temple was not an easy task after their arrival in Jerusalem, and they faced opposition from people who were resettled there by King Esarhaddon of Assyria (Ezra 4:1-5). The construction work stopped because of strong opposition from the locals, and it was not until Darius I became king of the Persian empire when the rebuilding of the temple resumed.

Tattenai, governor of Trans-Euphrates, sent a letter to Darius to stir trouble for the temple builders. He asked the king to investigate if Cyrus indeed issued a decree for rebuilding the temple during the first year of his reign. Tattenai’s plot to discourage the Jews backfired when Darius found a scroll of Cyrus’ decree in the citadel of Ecbatana in Media which allowed the exiles to return and rebuild the temple. In addition, Tattenai received additional instruction from Darius to help the Jews rebuild their Temple by paying for the construction cost. Anyone who changed the edict would be punished severely according to the edict of Darius (Ezra 5:1-17 and 6:1-12).

Tattenai and the people who banded with him stopped opposing the builders after the second decree by Darius I was issued. The temple was finished and blessed in 516 BC with a lavish celebration. The celebration of the Passover was revived shortly after the temple was rebuilt (Ezra 6:13-22).

The Dynasties through this time period had many foreign leaders over Egypt and is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History from 905 – 305 BC.

Third Intermediate Period

Egypt’s Third Intermediate Period saw the rise of the 21st Dynasty first ruled by Smendes and the transfer of the capital to Tanis in the Nile Delta. The High Priests of Amun were equal in power with the Tanis-based pharaohs, but these priests ruled Thebes in Upper Egypt. The Lower and Upper Egypt rulers respected each other and shared the power while governing their respective parts of Egypt. This period also saw the rise of Israel as a unified nation and the reign of its three first kings. Israel and Egypt strengthened their alliance when Pharaoh Siamun sent his daughter to Israel for King Solomon to marry.

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Dynasties 22 to 24: Libyan Rulers

The 22nd Dynasty is marked by the gradual rise to power of the Libyan rulers because of the division of power between Upper and Lower Egypt. Some of the Libyans were immigrants who originally settled in the Nile Delta, but others were also war captives and garrison troops. As their numbers increased and they assimilated in the Egyptian society, the power they had also increased and they soon made good alliances through marriage with the rulers of Thebes. For example, Shoshenq I (the Biblical Shishak) had his son Osorkon I marry Maatkare, the daughter of Psusennes II who was the last pharaoh and priest of the 21st Dynasty. He was also the chief adviser for the last pharaoh, and this made his rise as king of Egypt easier.

Shoshenq I reformed the government during his time as pharaoh. He lessened the power of the priests in Thebes and appointed his son Prince Iuput as High Priest to solidify his hold over Egypt. He tried to expand Egypt’s territory into Palestine (1 Kings 14:25) and attacked Judah with an army of Libyans and Cushites.

Egypt slipped into decline after the death of Shoshenq, and royal control weakened once again. The 23rd and 24th Dynasties are possibly of similar Libyan Meshwesh origins. The 23rd Dynasty is said to have ruled in Herakleopolis, Hermopolis or Thebes while the 24th Dynasty ruled in Sais. The conquest of Egypt by Piye, a Kushite king, ended the Libyan rule in Egypt and started the 25th Dynasty under Nubian rule.

Late Period

Dynasty 25: Nubian Rulers

Piye ruled in Nubia and Upper Egypt, then invaded Lower Egypt by taking advantage of the weakening of the Libyan rule. Piye removed a local prince named Tefnakht from his power base in the Nile Delta during his campaign to unite Egypt and Nubia. His accomplishments were inscribed in the Victory Stela of Piye, and he created an empire that spanned from modern-day Sudan to the Mediterranean. After the surrender of the local warlords, Piye returned to Nubia and never set foot in Egypt again.

Piye’s heir, Shabaqo, came back and reestablished rule in Lower Egypt. He was succeeded by other Nubian kings Shebitqo, Taharqo (the Biblical Tirhakah), and Tanutamani. Nubian control of Egypt was broken by the invasion of the Neo-Assyrians and by the time of Taharqo, the Nubians had lost control of Lower Egypt. The loss of Upper Egypt followed during the reign of Tanutamani. The Assyrian rule was established, and local Egyptian rulers became vassals of the foreign conquerors.

Dynasty 26: Saite Kings

As the Assyrian power declined in the Near East in 612 BC, its hold over Egypt also loosened. For the first time in many centuries, the power was held by a native Egyptian family of the 26th Dynasty. The Saite Dynasty ruled from 650 BC, and the country was unified by the dynasty’s third pharaoh, Psamtek I. They adopted the culture of the Old Kingdom and trade was established with the Greeks and Phoenicians. For much of the rule of the 26th Dynasty, Greek, Carian, Jewish, Phoenicians, and Bedouins were employed to protect Egypt from the invasion of the Babylonians and Persians.

Dynasty 27: Persian Rule

The Babylonians succeeded in conquering Egypt in 568 BC which later turned into an alliance. They were soon followed by the Persians who conquered Egypt under the Achaemenid Emperor Cambyses. He besieged Memphis in 525 BC and after a 10-day siege, the Egyptian capital fell to the Persians who established the country’s 27th Dynasty. Egypt became one of Persia’s satrapies (provinces) supervised by Persian satraps or governors. Cambyses and his successor Darius allowed the Egyptians the freedom to worship their own gods and even rebuilt some important temples. The Achaemenid hold on Egypt did not last long when Alexander III of Macedonia conquered the Persian empire.

Dynasty 28 to 30: Last of the Native Egyptian Pharaohs

The Egyptians rebelled from Persian rule and Amyrtaios, a descendant of the Saite kings, became one of the rulers of the 28th Dynasty. The 29th Dynasty kings ruled in the Nile Delta city of Mendes while the 30th Dynasty ruled from the city of Sebennytos. The advancing army of Alexander the Great put an end to Egyptian self-rule, and Nectanebo II became the last native Egyptian pharaoh. Alexander the Great led a short-lived Macedonian rule in the history of Egypt.

Chavin refers to an extinct culture that flourished in pre-Inca Peru circa 900 BC where it is listed on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History. It got its name from chavi, the Caribbean term for feline or tiger or the Quechua chawpin which means “in the center.” It may have also been a religious cult or political empire of which the center is Chavin de Huantar in what is today the Ancash region in Peru. At its height, the Chavin culture’s influence radiated from its center in the Cordillera Blanca mountain range to the northern and southern tips of modern day Peru facing the Pacific Ocean.

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Shared Common Art Styles

One of the most distinct aspects of Chavin culture is the shared common art style throughout the region, and its influence can be found in sites far from the Chavin De Huantar religious center. These include the Kuntur Wasi in the northern mountain range of Peru, as well as the Kotosh and Huaricoto sites in the southeast.

The Kotosh Period culture rose before the Chavin culture, but ceramics and gold artifacts belonging to the Chavin culture have been found in Kotosh elite burials. Chavinoid artifacts found in the Kotosh sites include stirrup spouts, cloud-shaped designs, rocker stampings, and black-polished incised pottery. Similar designs on reliefs and monoliths were also found in Kuntur Wasi site.

The Huaca de los Reyes building of the Caballo Muerto archeological complex features feline heads mounted on walls that are similar to Chavin art style. The Chavin culture influence is also evident in the Pacopampa culture pottery.

Inter-regional Trade

Its location between the Pacific Coast and the eastern jungle made Chavin de Huantar a center for trade. This is evident in the iconography of jungle plants and animals that can be found in Chavin stone sculptures and ceramics. In addition, the U-shaped layout of the temple and the sunken plazas in circular or rectangular shapes can be found in both Chavin and coastal cultures.

Profile feline heads, which were prominent features of coastal cultures, were integrated into Chavin stoneworks. Spondylus shells from Ecuador, as well as cinnabar and obsidian from south-central highlands of Peru that were recovered at Chavin de Huantar are strong indicators that far-reaching trade occurred at the site.

Warfare and Conquest

The Casma/Sechin culture that came before the Chavin was a particularly violent one and they carved depictions of ax-wielding warriors with mutilated human remains on their city walls. In contrast, depictions of conquest and warfare are absent in Chavin de Huantar. This may be an indication that the Chavins did not spread their influence through invasion, but through trade and religion.