Biblical Timeline Chart – Page 5 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on October 11, 2016February 18, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mohammedan Chronology

The Hegira was a fresh start for the Muslim community in Medina. The members of this new movement left the city of Mecca behind, but the migration meant they would need to start all over again. Their wealth and affluence were gone (for the rich ones, at least), but they were now stripped of their dependence on their clan or their tribe’s protection. With freedom, however, came new realities and they needed to use their wits with them if they were to survive in the new city of Medina. (The Mohammedan Chronology began in 622 AD as listed on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History.)

Mohammed and his followers spent the first two years in the new city in poverty. The few acres of farmland the oasis provided were not enough to support the original inhabitants of Medina which made it harder for the newcomers to earn a living. It was not until 623 AD when Mohammed and the Muslims carried out a series of Caravan Raids against Mecca. Partly as revenge for the persecution they suffered at the hands of the leaders of the city and as a way to support themselves. These Caravan Raids, as dictated by the codes of the tribes, were for materials possessions only and strictly forbade bloodshed.

624 AD was a crucial year for the community as this marked the Nakhla Raid when large amounts of booty were taken by the Muslims from unsuspecting Meccans. This raid was not approved by Mohammed as it happened during the pilgrimage month, a time when hostilities were temporarily forbidden. A Meccan was also killed during the raid, an act that further enraged the leaders of the Quraysh tribe. The tribal leaders sent a large army as revenge, and though they were outnumbered by the Quraysh, Mohammed’s followers defeated the forces of Mecca in the Battle of Badr in the same year. This was also the year when members of the Jewish Banu Qaynuqa were expelled from Medina after an alleged violation by the tribe.

“Muhammad’s entry into Mecca and the destruction of idols.”

The Quraysh of Mecca had not forgotten their humiliation at the hands of the Muslims. So they assembled a large force to punish the emigrants. They met in the Battle of Uhud where the Muslims were soundly defeated at the last moment, and the Meccans went home victorious. In addition, 625 AD was the year when the Jewish tribe Banu Nadir was expelled from Medina after the tribal leaders refused to contribute the blood money Mohammed asked from them. The blood money was payment after a man was killed during a quarrel with some people, which included Muslims. It was also alleged that the Banu Nadir challenged the leadership of Mohammed. Because of this, the members were besieged by Muslims for fourteen days. They were forced to leave Medina when it appeared that Mohammed and the Muslims would prevail. Some of the exiles went north of Medina to settle in Khaybar, while others continued to Syria.

In 627 AD, the Quraysh once again tried to get rid of the Muslims with the help of the ousted Banu Nadir and Banu Qaynuqa tribes. The Muslims in Medina were further outnumbered when other tribes joined the Quraysh-Banu Nadir-Banu Qaynuqa alliance. Mohammed decided to act quickly and enlisted the help of Salman the Persian who suggested that trenches be dug around Medina to prevent the Meccan alliance from reaching the city. The strategy was very effective, but the results were unclear as cold weather set in and the Medina alliance went home. But the greatest casualties of the Battle of the Trench (as it was called) were the men, women, and children of the Jewish Banu Qurayza tribe. It was the only significant Jewish tribe that remained in Medina after the first two were driven out and in the chaos of war, Mohammed accused them of betrayal during the Battle of the Trench. They were given two choices: convert to Islam or die and be enslaved. The Banu Qurayza chose the second, and as much as 700 men were killed because of this choice, while the tribe’s women and children were enslaved.

In 628 AD, Mohammed decided it was time to put an end to the hostilities with Mecca so he organized a pilgrimage to the Kaaba as a sign that the Muslims came in peace. He discouraged the pilgrims from bringing weapons. This was positively met by the leaders of the Quraysh. The Treaty of Hudaybiyya was affirmed by the leaders of Mecca and Medina, and peace between the two was achieved for the first time in many years. In 629 AD, the Muslims launched a final conquest against the Banu Nadir, who went into exile to the oasis of Khaybar. The Jewish tribe was defeated, and they were allowed to remain in Khaybar, but they were ruled by Muslims in the area from then on.

By 630 AD, tribal allies of the city of Mecca violated the peace Treaty of Hudaybiyya and attacked one of Mohammed’s allies which started the final conquest of the holy city. Mohammed mustered an army to attack the city, but Mecca was exhausted with the years of hostilities with the Muslims and chose instead to make another peace treaty. Mohammed entered the city without bloodshed, and he removed idols from the Kaaba as part of the agreement. Many Meccans also converted to Islam and in the same year, Mohammed became the ruler of a greater part of Arabia.

In 631 AD, the Arabs of Mecca, Medina, and neighboring cities were unified under Mohammed as a prophet, but he was never given the title of nor considered king. He was credited as the one who brought peace to its various tribes in the hostile peninsula and in the same year, most Arab tribes had converted to Islam. In October of the same year, Mohammed led the Muslims in an offensive against the Byzantines and successfully captured the city of Tabouk (the Byzantine rulers were not in the city itself).

Mohammed, aged 63 years old, made his Farewell Pilgrimage to Kaaba in 632 AD. He died after an illness on 8 June 632 AD and was buried in the house of his wife, Aisha.

References:
Picture By Unknown – Histoire Geographie 5ieme Nathan, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12047214
Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992.
Esposito, John L. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Rodinson, Maxime. Muhammad: Prophet of Islam. London: I.B. Tauris, 2002.

Posted on September 27, 2016September 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — 2 Comments

Pakal Dies at the Age of 80, The Emperor

Between the years 1945 and 1952, a Mexican archaeologist named Alberto Ruz Lhuillier worked on a series of excavations in the ancient Maya city of Palenque. In 1948, he came across a stone that he thought led to another chamber inside the Temple of the Inscriptions. He decided to pull the stone slab out of the way and dug his way through the debris. In 1952, his gamble paid off when he hit an archaeological jackpot—he had found the sarcophagus of a Maya nobleman. The large burial chamber, limestone sarcophagus with elaborate carvings, and the jade jewelry buried with the nobleman indicated his position in the Maya hierarchy. His identity remained a puzzle until the inscriptions were deciphered in the 1970s. The man with the magnificent jade mask buried inside an elaborate sarcophagus was K’inich Janaab’ Pakal, the greatest ruler of the Maya kingdom of Palenque. He is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History in 683 AD.

Emperor K’inich Janaab’ Pakal

One of Pakal’s most distinguished ancestors was Lady Yohl Ik’nal (one of the few female rulers recorded in Maya history) who descended from Palenque’s first ruler, King K’uk Balam I. She was followed by Ajen Yohl Mat and later, the Lady Sak K’uk’ who was also the mother of the emperor K’inich Janaab’ Pakal (k’inich alludes to the Maya sun god whole pakal means “shield”). Pakal was born during the reign of Lady Yohl Ik’nal, a time when Palenque experienced various upheavals under the dominance of the city of Calakmul.

As Pakal was still too young to inherit the throne, Lady Sak K’uk became his co-regent and ruled on her son’s behalf until he reached the age of 12. He was inaugurated on 615 AD and reigned for 67 long years (an unusual feat for a Maya ruler) until his death at the age of 80. His accession as king was written on the elaborate carving on the Oval Tablet from the Palace, but the first thirty years of his reign were surprisingly not recorded. According to epigrapher Nikolai Grube, Maya rulers waited until their rule reached stability until they commissioned commemorative monuments and inscriptions. Perhaps the first half of Pakal’s reign were turbulent, which explained why there were no records of these years.

Palenque became one of the most powerful Maya lowland kingdoms thanks to Pakal. The years of his reign were considered as the city’s golden age. Magnificent buildings were constructed, including some parts of the stunning royal palace and his mortuary shrine, and the Temple of Inscriptions. In 675 AD and several years before his death, Pakal commissioned the construction of his mausoleum, the Temple of the Inscriptions, and remodelled the nearby Temple of the Skull. The Temple of the Inscriptions was improved and finished by his son, Kan B’alam II, who succeeded his father to the throne of Palenque. Pakal was buried with luxurious grave goods including a jade mosaic face mask, pectoral plaque, mouth ornament, ear flares, rings, and bracelets—a testament to the Maya king’s greatness and Palenque’s wealth.

References:
Picture By User:Havelbaude – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1656965
Cremin, Aedeen, ed. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2007.
Tiesler, Vera, and Andrea Cucina. Janaab’ Pakal of Palenque: Reconstructing the Life and Death of a Maya Ruler. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2006.

Posted on September 20, 2016September 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mississippian Culture of Moundbuilders Replaces Hopewell

The Hopewell Culture, centred in the southern region of Ohio, was in its dying stages in 500 AD. The vacuum the Hopewell left was filled with and continued by the Mississippian Culture. This is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World history around the late 5th century.

Trade networks developed between 200 AD and 400 AD collapsed. The Hopewell people then moved to more isolated settlements. The construction of mound effigies—the earthworks of which the Hopewell culture was identified with—decreased and in many settlements, were abandoned altogether.

Mississippi_Mound_builders — “The Kincaid Site, a Mississippian settlement in southern Illinois”

“The Kincaid Site, a Mississippian settlement in southern Illinois”

The Mississippian Culture’s territory spanned from the Southeastern part of North America to the Midwest. Some of the culture’s well-known urban centers were built in Cahokia and Kincaid in Illinois, Moundville in Alabama, Aztalan in Wisconsin, Angel Mounds Site in Indiana, and Spiro in Oklahoma. They were often surrounded by smaller villages and agricultural lands strategically positioned in river valleys and tributaries of major waterways. The Mississippian people did not irrigate their fields and preferred instead to till the rich soil of the floodplains to plant their crops, which consisted of maize, squash, and beans.

One of the distinct markers of the Mississippian Culture was the construction of massive mounds. They were used as bases for temples or the houses of secular and religious rulers. The largest that spanned between 14 to 16 feet at the base and reached a height of up to 100 feet. The Monks Mound of the Cahokia Mounds group was the largest of these earthworks built by the Mississippians.

References:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chromesun_kincaid_site_01.jpg#/media/File:Chromesun_kincaid_site_01.jpg“Hopewell Culture – Ohio History Central.” Hopewell Culture – Ohio History Central. Accessed June 14, 2016. http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Hopewell_Culture?rec=1283.
Thackeray, Frank W., and John E. Findling. What Happened? An Encyclopedia of Events that Changed America Forever [4 volumes]. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995.
“An Introduction to North America’s Native People.” NATIVE PEOPLES of NORTH AMERICA. Accessed June 14, 2016. http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/mississ.html.
“Mississippian Period: Overview.” New Georgia Encyclopedia. Accessed June 14, 2016. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/mississippian-period-overview.

Posted on September 12, 2016September 6, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Romulus Augustulus

The Western Roman Empire had disintegrated by the time of the rise of its last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, who was the son of Orestes, a Roman general of Pannonian descent, and the daughter of a Count Romulus of Petovio. His father first served Attila the Hun as a secretary and later, as his an ambassador to Constantinople in his youth. Orestes later entered into the service of the Italian army when Attila died where he had a successful military career. This did not escape the notice of the then-emperor Julius Nepos, and general Orestes was elevated to patricius, as well as magister militum, in 475 AD which is where Romulus Augustulus is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History.

Julius Nepos would regret his decision as in the same year; Orestes promised to allot lands for the barbarian troops to settle in if they supported the coup he had planned. The Heruli, Scirian, and Torcilingi tribes joined the rebellion after they received the tempting offer. Together, they besieged the capital of Ravenna to get rid of Julius Nepos. The emperor fled to Dalmatia where he sought refuge with his uncle which left the imperial throne vacant, but surprisingly, Orestes declined when he was offered the position of the emperor. Instead, he elevated his 12-year old son, Romulus Augustulus, to the position on October 31, 475 AD.

Romulus_Augustus — “Romulus Augustus resigns the crown”

The young emperor was nothing more than a figurehead for his father, and he was not even recognized by the Eastern emperors Zeno and Basiculus (who were busy in a civil war against each other). It was just as well as the Western Roman Empire was not as it once was after barbarians gradually chipped away large parts of its territory until only Italy and a small part of Gaul remained.

Several months later, the barbarian troops who supported Orestes rebelled against him when he failed to provide the land that he promised them. They switched sides to Odoacer, another barbarian general, and Orestes was captured in the city of Piacenza where he was executed. Romulus Augustulus was deposed on September 4, 476 and Emperor Zeno of the Eastern Empire reluctantly proclaimed Odoacer as the west’s new ruler. Odoacer spared the young Romulus Augustulus, who was sent to live in the castle of Lucullus in Campania region and there, the last of the Western Roman Emperors disappeared from the pages of history.

References:
Gibbon, Edward, and D. M. Low. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960.
Kleinhenz, Christopher. Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Posted on August 24, 2016August 9, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Hopewell Trading Declines

The Hopewell Culture that flourished in parts of the American Midwest rose around 200 AD, but by 400 AD, most of the long-distance trade and interaction of the Hopewell people had ceased (it was not clear what they called themselves). This period of decline lasted from 400 to 500 AD according to the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History. With it came the decrease of mound building (of which they were known for) as well as rituals and other art forms.

Hopewell_Decline — Example of a Spear-Thrower or Atlatl

The decline of the Hopewell trade was attributed to several reasons including war, climate change, and a shift in hunting technology. The use of atlatl or spear-thrower, widely used before by the Hopewell people and other early Americans, disappeared in the area after the invention of the bow and arrow. The use of the bow and arrow improved hunting and increased their food supply, but its use also increased the instances of warfare. Perhaps the efficiency of the bow and arrow in warfare forced the people to move from the villages to more secluded and larger settlements in the highlands and interior valleys. They protected their new settlements with defensive fortifications (such as walls and ditches). The abrupt decline of the Hopewell culture and trade can also be attributed to climate change which resulted in a drastic decrease in their food sources.

References:
http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/hopewell.html
Fiedel, Stuart J. Prehistory of the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NHM_-_Homo_sapiens_Modell_1.jpg

Posted on August 17, 2016October 22, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Maya City of Tikal Invades Uaxactun

The city of Tikal in modern-day Guatemala started as a small farming village around 600 BC and gradually grew into a Maya megacity by the first century AD. It competed with the Maya city of El Mirador for domination until the latter’s decline and Tikal filled the vacuum of power left by its neighboring city. Its leaders launched conquests to the surrounding Maya cities for domination, which included Naranjo, Rio Azul, and Uaxactun. This event is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History around 378 AD.

In 378 AD, Tikal was conquered by Siyaj K’ak’ (whose name means “Born of Fire”). Siyaj K’ak’ was originally from the Central Mexican city of Teotihuacan. He took over the city violently as shown by the mutilated and broken stelae recovered from Tikal from this period. He also killed the city’s ruler Chak Tok Ich’aak I or Great Jaguar Paw during this campaign. Now that he had full control of Tikal, he set his sight into Uaxactun, a city 12 miles north of his newly-conquered one.

In the same year, Siyaj K’ak’ invaded the city of Uaxactun, captured its ruler, and executed him as a human sacrifice. The Uaxactun Stela 5 was carved to commemorate Siyaj K’ak’s conquest of the city and not far from the stela was the tomb of several people who were killed during the invasion. The tomb contained the bones of the wives of Uaxactun’s former ruler (one of whom was pregnant), as well as two children. Uaxactun was absorbed by Tikal after this conquest.

References:
Picture By Simon Burchell – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5784811
Cremin, Aedeen, ed. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2007
Sharer, Robert J., and Loa P. Traxler. The Ancient Maya. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006

Posted on August 10, 2016August 9, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Flavians, The

Flavian

Year of the Four Emperors

The death of the tyrant Nero signaled the end of the domination of the Julian dynasty over the Roman world. This led to the Flavian Dynasty starting around 69 AD according to the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History. As the rule of one dynasty ended, competition rose among Roman factions once again to see who would dominate this vast empire. One of those who were successful (temporarily) was the ex-consul Galba, who also had the backing of Roman troops. He was supported by Otho, the governor of Lusitania and the ex-husband of Nero’s wife Poppaea, who offered his own troops in addition to Galba’s.

Galba was removed from the position of Imperator when Roman soldiers who supported him switched sides to Otho. This was due to Galba’s failure to pay them for their support. He was killed in the Roman Forum, and he was replaced with his former ally Otho, whom the Senate immediately confirmed as princeps as well as imperator. However, it seemed that Otho was never destined for happy endings. As soon as he came to rule, a rebellion brewed within the troops stationed in the German territory of the empire under the command of a general named Vitellius. After a reign of just three months as emperor, Otho’s troops were defeated at the Battle of Cremona, and he committed suicide to avert a full-scale civil war. Otho was replaced by Vitellius, who, unfortunately for Rome, was cut from the same cloth as the overindulgent emperors before him. He dissolved the Praetorian Guard and installed his own loyal men to protect him, which earned the anger of those who lost their positions. Like Galba and other Julian emperors, he also indulged in vice excessively which earned resentment of the soldiers who fought for him. The unhappy Roman legions from the east decided to support Vespasian, then governor of Syria, to replace Vitellius as imperator.

“The Triumph of Titus, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema”

Vespasian

Meanwhile, as governor, Vespasian succeeded in putting down a rebellion in Judaea led by the Jewish rebels called the Zealots. He and his son Titus had driven the rebels into Jerusalem, and his troops (without Vespasian himself) marched to Rome to help him to the throne. Vitellius’ troops were defeated in Cremona by Vespasian’s troops, and they later caught up with Vitellius and killed him. Vespasian was proclaimed as princeps by the Roman Senate. However, he waited until the rebellion in Judaea was successfully quashed before he traveled to Rome to accept his new position. Before he left for Rome in 70 AD, Jerusalem was only a shadow of its former glory; the city walls were broken down and the Second Temple was destroyed by fire.

Vespasian showed his shrewdness when he reshuffled the commanders of the troops to prevent them from banding against him. Additionally, he lowered taxes and did not use treason trials to condemn his enemies. These strategies were so effective that the Roman empire was generally peaceful and stable under his rule. With the exception of the province of Judaea where a revolt reached its climax in the fortress of Masada. The members of the Sicarii, an extremist branch of the Zealots, were besieged by the Romans in the fortress of Masada for years. When the fortress was finally breached, the rebels (along with their families) committed mass suicide. Judaea and the whole of Palestine became provinces of Syria soon after.

Vespasian died of natural causes in 79 AD, and his son Titus was confirmed as heir immediately.

Titus

Titus was the commander of Roman troops during the time of the First Jewish-Roman War. He had a reputation for ruthlessness in dealing with his enemies. This cruelty was probably out of necessity as he made a complete turnaround when he was proclaimed as princeps. His administration was orderly, and Rome was stable during the first few months of his reign. Unfortunately, disaster after disaster struck Rome during Titus’ short reign.

First was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius which killed more than two thousand people. Then the fire which ravaged a great section of Rome, and finally, an epidemic which took the lives of what remained of the refugees. Titus had reigned for three short, yet tragic years before he died of a fever at the age of forty-two in 81 AD.

Domitian

The Praetorian Guard and the Roman Senate had no choice but proclaimed Domitian as imperator and princeps upon the death of his brother Titus. He was a just ruler who weeded out corruption in the government. He also policed public morals to the point of severity (he had a Vestal Virgin buried alive when he discovered her affairs). He proclaimed that he was now “Lord and God” of the Romans and issued an order that he should be addressed in both titles. Although he was not as cruel as the emperors that came before him, this rigidity choked the Roman citizens who gradually resented his tight-fisted administration.

This resentment would finally push his own chamberlain, his niece, and the leader of the Praetorian Guard to conspire against him. In 96 AD, Domitian was stabbed to death by Stephanus, the steward of his niece Flavia Domitilla whose husband Domitian executed for atheism.

References:
Picture By Lawrence Alma-Tadema – http://www.artrenewal.org/asp/database/image.asp?id=108, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2334600
Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius, and John Carew. Rolfe. Suetonius: In Two Volumes. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1997

Posted on July 20, 2016July 20, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Han Dynasty 202 BC-220 AD

Before the Han Dynasty

Qin Shi Huang was ancient China’s self-proclaimed First Emperor. Although the Han Dynasty, which came later, was China’s first dynasty to rule as a unified country. According to the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History, the Han Dynasty lasted between 202 BC and 220 AD.

Qin Shi Huang, a man of extreme ambition, was credited as the one who had the Great of Wall of China linked together to protect his empire from the invading Xiongnu people from the north. He is best remembered today as the one whose tomb was protected by the Terracotta Army. The quest to unify various states drove him to ruthlessly kill. This included the crown prince of Yen, his mother’s lover Lao Ai, and his own chancellor Li Buwei, among others. Later in his reign, Qin Shi Huang burned books that were “not of Ch’in’s.” Anyone who talked about these books were executed.

He was succeeded by his son Hu-hai who, in his insecurity, had commanders and former noblemen killed for any hint of disloyalty to his rule. The purge for real or imagined infidelity to Hu-hai became so extreme that the army rebelled months later. It was followed by a break to independence by the noblemen from various states previously conquered by his father. Civil war-wracked the new empire. The chancellor capitalized on the unrest so he could install the emperor’s nephew. He had his son-in-law stormed the palace to kill Hu-hai. After much bargaining and failure to reach an agreement, the emperor killed himself. The Second Emperor’s nephew was proclaimed as Ch’in’s new ruler by the chancellor, but the distrustful new ruler would go on to kill the one who plotted to make him emperor.

Han_Dynasty — The location of the Han Dynasty

This new emperor called Tzu Ying would reign only for a total of forty-six days until the palace was stormed by a Chu general called Hsiang Yu. He had Tzu Ying, as well as the whole court, killed. This was the end of the brief, glorious, and bloody reign of the Ch’in Dynasty and the once-united empire was fragmented again into various kingdoms which were at war with each other.

Liu Pang and the Dawn of the Han Dynasty

As the wars between kingdoms dragged on for five years, a man named Liu Pang rose to the position as a military policeman who was in charge of troops made up of convicts. Although he was from a peasant family, he reaped the benefits from the reforms made by the Ch’in Dynasty and joined Hsiang Yu in the rebellion. Hsiang Yu proclaimed himself the ruler of Chu, then awarded Liu Pang with a territory in return for his service. Then had the real Duke of Chu murdered to eliminate a possible competition.

Liu Pang seized the chance to “avenge” the death of the king. He captured territories one by one and gifted these to his loyal men. Then later, captured the now-unpopular Hsiang Yu. Liu Pang defeated Hsiang Yu in a battle, and the Chu general killed himself to avoid capture. Liu Pang proclaimed himself the new emperor after this success and decreed that the dynasty would be named Han. He changed his name from Liu Pang to Gao Zu and set up a new capital in the city of Chang’an.

This new China emerged weary from the successive wars. The people suffered during the short but brutal reign of the Ch’in Dynasty, as well as the inter-kingdom wars that followed. The new emperor Gao Zu figured that if he wanted a unified China, he needed to balance benevolence and freedom with strict authority. Some of the reforms he initiated included:

* The grant of amnesty for noble families who submitted to his authority.
* Tax and service exemptions for specified number of years for those who helped him gain the throne.
* Gave complete pardon to anyone who fought against him but did not curse him, but put to death anyone who cursed him.

After Gao Zu took care of internal threats to his newly-established kingdom, he now had the time to face the Xiongnu people. Which at that time, were the greatest threat to China. Considered as barbarians by the ancient Chinese people, the Xiongnu started their raids on China during the earlier Xia Dynasty and continued up to the Han Dynasty. The Xiongnu people were ruled by a powerful king (chanyu) named Mao-tun (also called Modu) who led an invasion of China during the reign of Emperor Gao Zu. The years of campaigns against China led to Emperor Gao Zu’s defeat by Mao-tun after the Batte of Baideng. The emperor was forced to pay an annual tribute to appease Mao-tun. He also sent noble ladies to marry Xiongnu leaders which started the policy of heqin (marriage alliance) to gain peace.

Gao Zu ruled only for seven years, and he was succeeded by his son Hui-ti after his death. But it was his first wife, the empress dowager Lu Zhi, who held the real power. She even to poisoned Gao Zu’s other wives and sons who threatened her son’s power. Hui-ti died at the age of twenty-three and Lu Zhi appointed various relatives to government positions—a policy that strengthened her hold on power. She also installed Hui-ti’s supposed eldest son as puppet emperor. He was put to death after he discovered that the empress dowager had his real mother killed. He was replaced by another “son” of Hui-ti, but his power was severely limited throughout his reign.

The relatives of Empress Lu Zhi were killed after her death and Wendi, Gao Zu’s son by another concubine, was proclaimed as emperor. He ruled for twenty generally peaceful and stable years with policies that allowed the people a greater degree of freedom. The Yuezhi, another group of nomadic people from the western border, started a series of raids in China, but they were repelled with the help of the Xiongnu people. The Yuezhi were driven westward into Bactria, and they left China in its new-found stability.

Emperor Wendi died and passed his throne to his heir Emperor Wudi, who reigned for fifty-three years. He was successful in pushing back the Xiongnu, who once again raided the borders of China. He also initiated economic and political reforms including the reintroduction of taxes and government control of trade, as well as the use of the civil service exams and reestablishment of a bureaucracy.

Opens Trade with West

It was also Emperor Wudi who sent an ambassador named Zhang Qian to the Western frontiers of his empire at around 139 BC. Zhang Qian was captured by the Xiongnu after he embarked on his quest but gave him a wife while he was a captive for ten years. He escaped when he had the chance and continued his travels west to Bactria and Parthia. He returned to China in 126 BC and reported what he saw during his travels which coincided with the rule of Indo-Greek king Menander I and Parthian king Mithridates I.

By 123 BC, Parthia was ruled by Mithridates II. Emperor Wudi sent envoys to visit the Central Asian empire. His envoys were received in a friendly manner and were sent back with gifts of “the eggs of great birds which live in the region” after their visit to the Parthian court. The establishment of a trade route (later known as the Silk Road) between the two empires followed and soon the Chinese traded their silk and lacquer for Parthian horses.

But this trade route was threatened by invading nomads and the Han’s longtime nemesis: the Xiongnu. Li Guang, Emperor Wudi’s general, was successful in defeating the Xiongnu troops in China’s western frontier which protected the Silk Road trade. But this victory came at a great expense to the Han treasury. The size of the empire would remain as it was during the reign of its next emperors.

Hiatus: The Short-Lived Xin Dynasty

Yuandi, the Han emperor who adhered to the Confucian concept of filial piety, died in 33 AD—but not before he appointed various family members to government positions. This was continued by his widow, the empress dowager Zhengjun, who installed various relatives from the Wang clan into important posts. One of the most important posts was given to her nephew, Wang Mang. The empress acted as a regent, first for her son, and then for two other emperors. However, they all died soon after they took the throne.

While the empress dowager groomed another baby (a distant relative of her husband) to succeed the throne, Wang Mang busied himself in convincing people that the successive deaths of the previous emperors were omens from heaven that the Han Dynasty’s reign was about to end. He proclaimed himself the new emperor and established a new dynasty called the Xin which would rule China for at least a decade and a half.

Wang Mang overturned some of the Han Dynasty’s reforms and reestablished the old feudal system which oppressed the peasants. He also angered the noble families when he claimed that the emperor owned all of China and even claimed some of their lands for himself. Drought, famine, and floods added to his woes and by 23 AD, he gave up entirely and fled from the Han capital of Chang’an.

Eastern Han Dynasty

The China that Wang Mang left was a mess and battles were fought by many claimants to the Han throne. A man named Liu Xiu (Emperor Guang Wudi) emerged victorious. He moved the capital from Chang’an to the eastern city of Luoyang when he ascended the throne. He reformed the government by appointing people other than family members to government positions and dividing territories by county. He went on to rule for thirty-two years, most of which were prosperous.

Guang Wudi was married to two women: first was with Guo Shentong from Hebei in the north and the second was with Yin Lihua from Henan in the south. He favored his second wife more than he did the first. He banished Guo Shentong from the palace when she complained about it. When the time came for him to award the throne to one of his sons, Guang Wudi gave it to his son by Yin Lihua, Mingdi.

To appease the clan of Guo Shentong, the clever Emperor Mingdi sent his general Ban Chao to the north to help them repel the Xiongnu invasion. He also helped secure the Tarim Basin region in the west and established Han control over the important Silk Road route. It was also Mingdi who sent envoys to India to learn more about Buddhism after he dreamed of seeing a radiant god in the sky who his advisers said was the spirit of Buddha. The men he sent to India brought back the Sutra in Forty-two Sections. Mingdi, after he read the Buddhist teachings, started to adhere to the Sutra along with his court. Buddhism soon became the religion of the elite and they adopted it side by side with Confucianism.

Rise of the Palace Eunuchs and the Decline of the Han Dynasty

China became stable and prosperous once again during the reign of Mingdi’s son, Emperor Zhangdi. The Eastern Dynasty had extended its reach as far as the Parthian border in the west and the Silk Road had been secured which added to the empire’s prosperity. Emperor Zhangdi died in 88 AD and left his 9-year old son Hedi as China’s new heir while the now-elderly general Ban Chao was named as regent. Ban Chao advised Hedi order the death of his mother’s relatives who, at that time, wanted to exploit the emperor’s youth so they could gain important positions in the government. The orders were carried out by Hedi’s trusted eunuchs. This would start the rise of a new kind of power in the royal palace.

Emperor Hedi died in his twenties and without an heir; a baby by one of his concubines would die young, too, which left the throne empty. A nephew of the late emperor was appointed as the new ruler, and powerful relatives rose once again to take advantage of the situation. A succession of young rulers followed, but almost all of them died young. China, at that time, was run by various family members.

Huandi, one of China’s teenage rulers (he was only fourteen when he was crowned as emperor), rose to power in 146 AD. He married Empress Dowager Liang Na. Unfortunately for Huandi, Empress Liang Na had a powerful and ambitious brother Liang Ji, who ran the government while the Han Dynasty was stuck with the problem of succession. He continued to rule Luoyang on Huandi’s behalf, and the young king became a sort of a puppet ruler who only trusted the powerful palace eunuchs.

The eunuchs, at first, were not as powerful as they were during the rule of the Eastern Han Dynasty. More importantly, they were not able to have sons because of their status. They gradually accumulated land and wealth, and they were allowed to adopt sons—something that became common for eunuchs at that time. But during the rule of the Eastern Han Dynasty, these adopted sons were allowed to keep their inheritance when their fathers died. They slowly accumulated wealth and estates. It was only natural that these sons would marry and start their own powerful clans—something the Han Dynasty severely disliked as this could cause another conflict.

Huandi resented his brother-in-law so much that he ordered his most trusted eunuchs to kill Liang Ji, but he had killed himself before the eunuchs could get to him. His entire clan was also wiped out, and Huandi became the sole ruler of a China that was currently on the edge of collapse.

The merchant class and powerful government officials rose in power during the reign of the Han Dynasty’s child emperors. The government’s policy of merit system produced some of China’s brightest yet most ambitious men who confiscated the land of those who were unable to pay their taxes but allowed them to farm the lands the debtors previously owned. The newly-rich merchants who benefited from the Silk Road trade also became wealthy landowners. This seemed to throw China back into the old feudal system the peasants so hated.

Those problems were made worse by the fact that Huandi’s twelve-year-old son, Lingdi, inherited the throne. The eunuchs had accumulated so much power that his mother, Empress Dowager Dou, was worried. She planned to order the killing of the most powerful eunuchs. She who was imprisoned when the news of this plan reached them. They also tricked Lingdi into believing that his mother hatched a plot against him and that they were the only ones he could trust. Lingdi trusted them and had his mother banished. This was only the beginning of China’s woes. Diseases, flooding, pestilence, and failed military campaigns would rip China apart. By 184 AD, the rage of the people exploded which resulted in the Yellow Turban Rebellion.

As the fight against the Yellow Turban rebels raged on, Lingdi died without naming an heir. So the eunuchs and the palace general agreed on appointing Shaodi, Lingdi’s fifteen-year-old son, as the new emperor. But both parties were distrustful of each other, and the eunuchs, as well as the generals, fought for dominance which only resulted in a massacre in the palace. A general called Tung Cho took advantage of the situation and killed Shaodi who he had replaced with a younger brother called Xiandi. Tung Cho was killed by a general named Cao Cao (the grandson of a favored eunuch) who promptly had the new emperor marry his daughter to cement an alliance. Together they recaptured the Han throne, but by then, it was too late. The Yellow Turban rebellion dragged on, and China had broken down into several factions. They were led by different generals who were unwilling to let the Han Dynasty dominate once again.

Xiandi would later abdicate the throne for Cao Cao’s son in 220 AD. This heralded the end of the Han Dynasty. The collapse of this would result in the Three Kingdoms Period. This divided China into the kingdoms of Wu, Shu, and Wei.

References:
Picture By User:Historian of the arab people – Self Made, copied map from page 63 of the book Mapping History: World History, by Dr. Ian Barnes. ISBN 978-1-84573-323-0, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5096078
Hung, Hing Ming. The Road to the Throne: How Liu Bang Founded China’s Han Dynasty. New York: Algora Publishing, 2011
Bauer, S. Wise. The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome. New York: W.W. Norton, 2007

Posted on July 11, 2016July 11, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

John Hyrcanus

John Hyrcanus lived during one of the most tumultuous periods of Jewish history when Judea was under the rule of the Seleucid dynasty. According to the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History, this was around 105 BC. He was one of the various rebel leaders in his family, starting with his grandfather Mattathias Maccabeus, who led successful campaigns against Hellenistic Jews and their allies, the Seleucid Empire. The early Maccabees were masters of guerrilla warfare and won important campaigns even when they were vastly outnumbered by their enemies.

Much of what we know about John Hyrcanus came from the works of Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. In his books Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish War, Josephus tells us that John Hyrcanus was the son of Simon. Simon was a leader proclaimed as a high priest after his successful campaign against the tyrant Trypho and Seleucid ruler Antiochus. Hyrcanus was also the nephew of rebel leaders, Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus

Against Ptolemy

His father, Simon, was killed by his own son-in-law Ptolemy* after he attended a banquet at the invitation of Ptolemy’s father, Abubus. Two of Hyrcanus’ brothers, Mattathias, and Judas came with their father to the feast and were also killed. After an unsuccessful attempt to kill John Hyrcanus, who promptly escaped, Ptolemy imprisoned his mother and brothers as hostages.

John Hyrcanus took refuge in the city where he was welcomed and sheltered by the people because of his father’s heroism and their hatred of Ptolemy. His enemy made another attempt to end Hyrcanus’ life, but it was unsuccessful. Hyrcanus would be appointed as high priest. After he had gathered enough supporters, they attacked Ptolemy in an attempt to free his mother and brothers from prison. Ptolemy brought out Hyrcanus’ family and had them tortured to stop him from besieging the city. Ptolemy’s ruse worked, and Hyrcanus ended the siege after he saw his family severely beaten with rods.

The conflict between Ptolemy and John Hyrcanus would last for many years, which culminated until the Sabbatical Year when the latter stopped all attacks against his enemy. In the same year, Ptolemy killed Hyrcanus’ mother and brothers and fled to Zeno, the tyrant of Philadelphia. John Hyrcanus became the ruler of Judea after Ptolemy fled the city.

Wars with Seleucid Ruler and Surrender

His first few years as ruler of Judea were not peaceful as Antiochus VII Sidetus, the Seleucid king of Syria, decided to attack Judea. After several years of sieges, Hyrcanus was defeated, and he was forced to submit to the conditions laid out by Antiochus. He demanded from Hyrcanus the surrender of all weapons, the imposition of taxes on cities outside of Judea, a tribute of 500 talents, and several hostages so he could keep a tight grip on the people. Hyrcanus was also forced to plunder the sepulchre of David as a tribute to Antiochus, which led to the resentment of the Judean people. His reputation also suffered when he was forced to serve Antiochus in his campaign against the Parthians. Antiochus died the next year, and Hyrcanus decided to attack the now-vulnerable Syria.

Later Life

Hyrcanus took revenge on Syria with a successful invasion of Medab, Samega, and other surrounding cities. He also took Shechem, Gerizzim, and the territories of the Cutheans (Samaritans) where he destroyed their temple that resembled the one in Jerusalem. He also forced the Idumeans to convert to Judaism after he conquered the cities of Marissa and Dora.

Hyrcanus established a friendly relationship with Rome after he sent ambassadors to the city. He was now backed by Rome while Judea also had a peaceful relationship with Egypt, Athens, and Pergamum during his reign. He ruled Judea peacefully for another 31 years and had five sons—one of whom was Aristobulus, the first king of Judea.

* not related to the Ptolemies of Egypt

References:
Picture By José Teófilo de Jesus – Scan, MAB/Safra catalogue., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10935138
Josephus, Flavius, and William Whiston. The Antiquities of the Jews. London: Routledge
Josephus, Flavius, and William Whiston. The War of the Jews. London: J.M. Dent & Sons

Posted on July 7, 2016July 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Olmecs, Final Decline of the

The Olmec civilization was one of the oldest (if not the oldest) civilizations that rose in Mesoamerica. The Olmec people’s enduring legacy was their colossal head statues, detailed rock carvings, and writing system. The cities of San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes near the Gulf of Mexico served as their major urban centers. These cities rose and declined one after the other until the last major urban centers were abandoned completely. According to the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History, the final decline of the Olmecs occurs just before the time of Christ’s birth.

Possible Causes of the Decline

The environment that sustained the Olmec civilization may have played a great role in its decline. The Olmec people lived in a rich land near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico where they could farm and make use of the vast trade networks on the coast. But it was also vulnerable to climatic changes that brought on drought, as well as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. These may have caused the river channels to shift, preventing the Olmec from irrigating their crops and disrupting their food production.

olmec_declines — “Olmec people’s enduring legacy was their colossal head statues, detailed rock carvings, and writing system.”

“Olmec people’s enduring legacy was their colossal head statues, detailed rock carvings, and writing system.”

Human actions such as internal strife and warfare with other tribes may have also affected the Olmec people and one of the possible causes for their decline. Their gigantic head statues and altars showed signs of mutilation and defacement. Some were partially broken or grooved while others were completely smashed—signs of a great upheaval that may have come from a rebellion within or an invasion of other tribes.

The Olmecs abandoned their cities on the Gulf coast and trade routes, as well as distribution networks. The decline of the Olmec civilization on the Gulf Coast also coincided with the rise of highland urban centers. Their increased use of irrigation in the highlands and greater agricultural production eclipsed the last major Olmec center. This may have resulted in a major shift in population.

References:
CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=129925
Childress, David Hatcher. The Mystery of the Olmecs. Kempton, IL: Adventures Unlimited Press, 2007
Grove, David C. Discovering the Olmecs: An Unconventional History. University of Texas Press, 2014
Sharer, Robert J., and David C. Grove. Regional Perspectives on the Olmec. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989