Emperor Constantine assembled a council of Christian bishops in the city of Ancyra (modern Ankara – but was later relocated in favor of the city of Nicaea [modern Iznik, Turkey]). The council was originally gathered as the first effort to reconcile St. Alexander of Alexandria and the Libyan presbyter, Arius of Alexandria. This started because of the controversial beliefs about the nature and origin of the Son of God which caused ripples in the fourth-century Christian world. Arianism, simply put, is the belief that Jesus was only created by God and as the Son of God, and did not hold an equal status to the Father. According to the Bible Timeline with World History, Arianism was condemned during the time of this meeting at 325 AD.
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The bishops, which numbered anywhere between 200 to more than 300, came from Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece, and Thrace. The president of the synod was Hosius of Cordova, and there were only twenty-two bishops who backed Arius (according to Church historian Philostorgius). Arius probably knew that his cause at the Council was doomed at the beginning because according to Eustathius of Antioch, a credal document written by a Eusebius in support of Arianism was presented early on to the council and was torn up afterward. Another document supposedly written by Arian bishops was also destroyed later.
“Council of Nicaea 325”
After the assembly, the council wrote to the churches in Egypt and Libya (particularly to the Alexandrians and those who lived in the Libyan Pentapolis). Arius, along with his followers, were dismissed as impious and lawless for his beliefs. According to The Letter of the Synod in Nicaea to the Egyptians, First Council of Nicaea, Arius believed that Jesus “is from things that are not, and that before he was begotten he was not, and that there was a time when he was not, and that the Son of God is by his free will capable of vice and virtue; saying also that he is a creature.”
Two of those who shared the same condemnation and excommunication were Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais, along with Alexandrian deacon Euzoius. They were exiled to Palestine after they refused to acknowledge and sign the creed and anathemas issued by the council.
References:
Picture By Fresco in Capella Sistina, Vatican – http://ariandjabarimchenry.com/first-council-of-nicaea/, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30734368
Williams, Rowan. Arius: Heresy and Tradition. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2002
Berndt, Guido M., and Roland Steinacher. Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed
“FIRST COUNCIL OF NICAEA – 325 AD.” Documenta Catholica Omnia. http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/
The pre-Columbian Huastec civilization flourished near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in what is now the state of Veracruz. It is not as popular as other Mesoamerican civilizations, but it is no less as intriguing as the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Aztec, and other Mesoamerican civilizations. The Huastec cities shared many traits with other civilizations which include the construction of pyramids, ball courts, plazas, not to mention canal systems that allowed the people to improve the cultivation of food in a tropical environment. This is recorded on the Bible Timeline with World History starting around 325 AD.
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One of the major cities of the Huastec civilization was El Tajin with a sizable population at its peak. To support the needs of the people who lived in or near the city, the surrounding areas were used for the cultivation of Mesoamerican food staples such as maize, squash, and beans. Elevated canals were constructed to divert fresh water and irrigate the raised fields as shown by the canal systems located in areas under the control of El Tajin.
Santa Luisa in Veracruz was one of the food production centers which supplied these staple foods to the people of El Tajin. With the construction of canal systems and catchment terraces on the hills. The Huastec also used the canals to distribute surface run-off from flooded areas to irrigate their fields.
References: CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=43835
Doolittle, William Emery. Canal Irrigation in Prehistoric Mexico: The Sequence of Technological Change. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990
Faust, Katherine A., and Kim N. Richter. The Huasteca: Culture, History, and Interregional Exchange. University of Oklahoma Press, 2015
Rome was at its lowest point during the rule of the Military Emperors (235-284 AD according to the Bible Timeline with World History). In a period of 49 years, fourteen people held the title of emperor, most of whom seized and consolidated their powers through their command of the military. The years of the soldier emperors were characterized by instability, civil war, political turmoil, and poverty. It was also a period when the Germanic tribes and Rome’s long-time nemesis, the Persians, stepped up their invasion of Roman territories.
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The rule of the Military Emperors and the weakness that came with it was the result of a combination of complex problems that hounded the empire for a long time. The population of Rome decreased after the repeated invasions of the Germanic tribes and Persians. At the same time, the bad financial policies the previous leaders imposed took its toll on the empire and its citizens. The rulers themselves depended on the military to keep them in power, but the high cost of maintaining a private army and the lack of available Roman soldiers pushed them to recruit men from the outlying provinces. This policy was problematic, as the new soldiers who were not of Roman descent, were not compelled to loyalty.
As Rome’s economy slowed down, trade also declined and many workers remained unemployed. Corruption, tax evasion, and inflation were also rampant. Farmers abandoned their lands and became tenants to larger ones instead. Others chose the life of banditry if being a tenant farmer did not work out.
Soldier Emperors
The first of the soldier emperors was Maximinus Thrax who rose as emperor in 235 AD. He was chosen by the Praetorian Guard and confirmed by the Roman Senate. Maximinus was born in a village in Thrace from parents who were peasants. He started his career in the army during the reign of Septimus Severus. Coup attempts were frequent during his reign, but he was capable enough as an army commander as he helped drive back the Germans who invaded the Roman frontier.
Maximinus’ popularity plummeted when he increased taxes during his reign. He was so unpopular the Romans in the province of North Africa pushed the senate to proclaim the proconsul Gordian I as emperor. This was granted (with his son Gordian II as co-emperor because of his father’s advanced age). However, Capelianus, the governor of the province of Numidia and loyal ally of Maximinus, killed Gordian II in the Battle of Carthage. The elderly Gordian killed himself after hearing of the tragic end of his son.
After the death of Gordian and his son, the senate decided to give leadership to senators Balbinus and Pupienus while Maximinus was still emperor. Maximinus decided to return from Pannonia to confront the new “emperors.” Maximinus was killed by the soldiers of the Second Parthian Legion while he and his troops besieged the Roman city of Aquileia.
Balbinus and Pupienus were suspicious of each other from the start of their reign. It escalated into full-blown mutual hatred as the months passed. Both were unpopular with the Roman soldiers from the preferential treatment they gave to the German guards. Because of this, they were assassinated when the Praetorian Guard stormed the palace. This was only stopped when the German bodyguards decided to attack. Their antagonism of each other was so great that until the last minute, Balbinus and Pupienus argued on what they should do during the attack. Gordian III, the teenage grandson of Gordian II, replaced them and was approved by the Senate, the Roman soldiers, and the people.
The new Roman emperor Gordian III married the daughter of the prefect of the Praetorian Guard Timesitheus. She then ruled Rome on Gordian’s behalf. His father-in-law died years later and the young emperor was left to face on his own the Persian king Shapur I who invaded Mesopotamia. Philip the Arab, one of the prefects of the Praetorian Guard (the other being his brother Priscus, also an important official), led the battle in Mesopotamia as a regent of Gordian III. The young emperor died later on in Mesopotamia under questionable circumstances. It was said that Philip fabricated intrigue to have Gordian removed from the position of emperor. While in a foreign land, had him murdered, and sent a letter back to Rome that the previous emperor died of an illness. Philip had himself proclaimed by the Senate as emperor right after Gordian’s death and had the tragic boy emperor deified.
Philip proved himself a competent military leader when he negotiated peace with Shapur instead of an engagement in a long war that would have further strained the Roman economy. It was during Philip’s reign that Rome celebrated its 1,000th anniversary. However, the Germanic tribes invaded the Roman frontier in the north once again and Philip was forced to send Decius, a former senator, and consul, to counter the attacks. Decius was hailed as the emperor by the soldiers in the Danube front and he defeated Philip soon after to become the sole emperor.
“Roman ruins at Abritus, site of the battle”
Decius was known for two things: the bolder, more frequent invasion of Goths into the Roman territory and his persecution of Christians. He was killed in the Battle of Abritus against the Goths along with his son and co-emperor Herennius Etruscus. Decius was followed by his younger son, Hostilian, as emperor, but he would later die by the plague of Cyprian. Trebonianus Gallus, a general and co-emperor with Decius, took over. Gallus reigned only for a total of two years and he made his son, Volusianus, a co-emperor. His rule was marred by the invasion of the Persians in Armenia and the Goths in the Danube.
They were defeated by Aemilian, the governor of Moesia. He was proclaimed emperor soon after. Gallus was assassinated by his own troops while they stationed in the Upper Rhine. Then they proclaimed their commander, Valerian, as the new emperor. Aemilian reigned only for three months and he was killed by his own soldiers when they were on the brink of defeat by Valerian’s troops in a battle near Spoleto.
Valerian divided the responsibilities of the emperor between himself and his son, Gallienus. The father led the troops that fought successfully in the east while Gallienus became commander of the Roman legion in the west. But Valerian was forced to retreat and negotiate with Shapur when a plague cut off the size of his army. Unfortunately, Shapur decided to kill the bodyguards who went with Valerian and he became the first Roman emperor taken as captive.
While Valerian was a prisoner of war in Persia, the Germanic tribes that threatened Rome’s frontiers invaded once again and the perceived weakness of the empire pushed some provinces to declare their own independence. His son Gallienus was murdered by one of his soldiers and Valerian was killed in Persia soon after—a brutal punishment the third century Christians whom Valerian persecuted thought he rightfully deserved.
Claudius II Gothicus, another former soldier, took on the role as emperor after the death of Valerian and Gallienus. He reigned only for more than one year before he died of the plague and was replaced by his brother, Quintillus who reigned only for more than 100 days before he, too, died for unknown reasons. Another soldier, Aurelian, was declared as emperor by his troops. He brought a little of Rome’s former stability back by instilling discipline in the army. He also had a wall built around the city—an acknowledgment that Rome was not the secure city it once was. After a reign of five years, the Praetorian Guard assassinated Aurelian in Thrace.
Six more emperors (Tacitus, Florian, Probus, Carus, Numerian, and Carinus) followed Aurelian and all of them met violent deaths. The rule of the Military Emperors would be replaced by the Tetrarchy (leadership of four people) which started when emperor Diocletian ascended into power.
References:
Picture By Vladimir Petkov – Атриума на Абритус // The atrium at Abritus, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14812199
Blois, Lukas De., and R. J. Van Der. Spek. An Introduction to the Ancient World. London: Routledge, 1997
Meijer, Fik. Emperors Don’t Die in Bed. London: Routledge, 2004
http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/roman-empire/timeline-of-roman-emperors.htm
The Apostolic Ministry began after the Jewish holiday of Pentecost. A bewildered crowd had gathered after they heard the apostles (as well as other believers who were with them) speak in other languages. They had thought that those present were only drunk. Peter addressed the crowd in his Pentecost sermon—which was also the first ever sermon given by a disciple—and preached to them about the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Many of the people repented, were baptized and became believers in Christ.
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After Christ’s ascension, the new movement was commissioned to the apostles and was centered not in Galilee (as in Jesus’ time) but in Jerusalem. They were not alone, though, as Jesus’ mother and his four brothers were also among those who continued in the ministry after his death. The early Christians, headed by the apostles, remained essentially Jewish at the core. They continued to observe Jewish rituals, holidays, and other traditions.
The apostles performed their first miracles at the beginning of the Apostolic Ministry led by Peter and John. Both apostles healed the crippled beggar at the temple’s Beautiful Gate (Acts 3:1-10) while unnamed apostles performed miracles all over Jerusalem (Acts 5:12-16).
“A Western depiction of the Pentecost, painted by Jean II Restout, 1732.”
The number of the followers of early Christianity increased and with it came the inevitable rise of conflicts between believers as shown in Acts 6:1-7. Greek or Hellenist believers complained that the Hebrew widows were favored in the early church’s food distribution program. So the apostles decided to focus on the preaching the Word and delegate this responsibility instead to seven men who became the church’s first deacons. The seven men were:
Stephen
Philip the Evangelist
Prochorus
Nicanor
Timon
Parmenas
Nicolaus of Antioch
Early Church, First Persecutions
Peter and John both irritated the Sanhedrin after they healed the crippled beggar, preached about Jesus’ resurrection, and encouraged the people to repent. Both apostles were imprisoned but released when the Sanhedrin could not find any fault to charge against them (Acts 3 and 4).
Unnamed apostles also healed many in Jerusalem (Acts 5:12-16) and once again earned the jealousy of the Sadducees. The apostles were arrested and jailed, but they were set free by an angel and commanded to preach in the temple court at daybreak (5:17-21). They were arrested again and made to appear before the Sanhedrin, who became furious when Peter defended their faith. The council wanted the apostles to be executed immediately, but a wise Pharisee called Gamaliel persuaded them to let the apostles go (5:34-39). The apostles were flogged and reminded not to preach about Jesus again. To the council’s disappointment, the apostles returned to the temple courts and continued to preach about Jesus Christ.
One of the first victims of the persecution was Stephen, who was known to be “full of grace and power” and “did great wonders and miraculous signs among the people” (Acts 6:8). He was falsely accused of blasphemy after he fell victim to the envy of other Jews and was stoned by the crowd after his defense before the Sanhedrin. Meanwhile, Saul of Tarsus first appeared in this chapter as the person who gave the approval for Stephen’s death.
Samaria and Beyond
As the early church gained more followers, the persecution intensified. The apostles, as well as the other believers, were forced to leave Jerusalem. They sought refuge in Samaria (Acts 8) where they converted many to the Christian faith. What seemed a negative event at first became something positive as the Samaritans accepted the Word and received the Holy Spirit.
Philip, one of the deacons appointed by the apostles, traveled to Samaria to escape the persecution and continued to Gaza where he met the Ethiopian eunuch, one of the first Gentiles to be baptized. After the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch, Philip was transported by the Spirit of the Lord to Azotus and preached from there all the way up north to the coastal town of Caesarea Maritima (Acts 8:26-40).
Teotihuacan was one of the greatest Mesoamerican cities with a sizable population at its peak that rivaled contemporary cities such as ancient Rome and Luoyang of the Eastern Han. According to the Bible Timeline with World History, the population had reached about 40,000 before 25 AD. Teotihuacan was a city laid out in a neat grid pattern right in the heart of the Valley of Mexico. It also had a sophisticated plumbing sewage system that drained water into underground canals.
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Teotihuacan started as a rural settlement that gradually grew into a large urban center as the years passed. The people mostly lived in single-story apartment complexes. These were divided into compounds where small families of 20 individuals or large ones with up to 100 people lived. Farmers, artisans, and merchants were spread out within the city’s 20 sq km residential area.
“… the eruption of the Xitle volcano”
Immigrants from the cities of the Gulf of Mexico also flocked into Teotihuacan. This was evident by the difference in the ceramics recovered from the apartment complexes. As the city grew, more people chose to live in the rural areas outside Teotihuacan for farming or to domesticate animals. Which also supplied the needs of the people inside the city.
The population of Teotihuacan would peak further to 200,000 when refugees from the neighboring Cuicuilco flocked to the city following the eruption of the Xitle volcano. However, the population would be greatly reduced during the decline of Teotihuacan in 650 AD.
References:
Yoffee, Norman, ed. The Cambridge World History. Volume 3: Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE-1200 CE. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015
Hansen, Valerie, and Kenneth Curtis. Voyages in World History, Volume 1. Wadsworth Publishing, 2008
Alexander Jannaeus was the second Hasmonean king after Aristobulus and the son of Maccabeean leader John Hyrcanus. According to the Bible Timeline with World History, he lived around 98 BC. His reign was full of conflict with Judea’s neighbors and marred by conflicts within Judea itself. Much of what we know about Alexander Jannaeus came from the writings of Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. Alexander was not his father’s heir as he was younger than two of his brothers. According to Josephus, he was also his father’s least favorite child.
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This unfortunate start was made worse after Aristobulus, his brother, imprisoned their mother whom John Hyrcanus wanted to rule in his stead after his death. Aristobulus, along with another brother Antigonus, conspired together when they starved their mother to death in prison and proclaimed himself king instead. They also left three of their brothers, including Alexander Jannaeus, imprisoned. Alexandra Salome, the new king’s wife, tricked both Aristobulus and his brother Antigonus which resulted in them turning against each other. Because of this, Aristobulus killed his brother and descended into madness soon afterward. According to Josephus, he died after he reigned for one year of a disease of the intestines.
Alexander Jannaeus was freed by Queen Alexandra after the death of Aristobulus. She then had him proclaimed as new king of Judea, and both sealed the pact through marriage. He had one of his brothers whom he considered a threat to his kingship killed but spared another brother who only wanted a quiet life.
Many people died because of greed and pride under the reign of Alexander
Conflicts
During the height of his reign, his territory stretched from Dan in the north to Beersheba. Alexander attacked the coastal city of Ptolemais (modern Acre) soon after he became king. The rulers of Ptolemais needed an ally to help them defend the city, and they chose Ptolemy Lathyrus for help. He was removed by his mother, Cleopatra III from governing Egypt earlier and was exiled in Cyprus. Thus, he was eager to regain power with this alliance with the rulers of Ptolemais. He was further assured that the people of Gaza (which Alexander also attacked) would be on his side, as well as the Sidonians and other allies.
Ptolemy’s ambition of returning to power was cut short when an influential man from Ptolemais, called Demenetus, convinced the people to submit instead to the Jews. He was worried that an alliance with Ptolemy would alarm his mother who ruled as queen of Egypt and would likely attack Ptolemais herself. Ptolemy heard this while in Cyprus, but he decided to sail to Ptolemais with his soldiers despite the people’s betrayal. To add insult to injury, the rulers of Ptolemais refused to talk to him and his ambassadors when they arrived outside their city.
Ptolemy was redeemed when the rulers of Gaza asked for his assistance after Alexander besieged their city. Alexander Jannaeus showed how cunning he was when he deceived Ptolemy into a public alliance with him but made a secret alliance with Cleopatra against her son. Ptolemy handed over the cities of his former allies to Alexander Jannaeus. When he discovered the Judean king’s scheme, he proceeded to attack several cities in Galilee. Many were successful, so Alexander asked for Cleopatra’s help. She sent her loyal Jewish generals Helkias and Ananias to help the Judean king, so her son was forced to withdraw from Alexander’s territories.
Alexander also launched a series of conquests towards the Transjordan region for the profitable trade route that ran through the Nabatean territory. He conquered the cities of Gadara, Raphia, Anthedon, and Gaza. He also tried to take the fortress of Amathus but was unsuccessful when he and his troops were ambushed by its ruler Theodorus.
Civil War
Angered after the Judean king wrested the trade routes from him, the Nabatean king Obodas I, ambushed him at Golan. After this defeat, Alexander decided to return to Jerusalem, but was opposed by his own people. The Jewish people’s growing resentment culminated into a full civil war after an incident during the Feast of the Tabernacles. As he was the High Priest, Alexander was assigned the task of pouring the water during the libation ceremony on the altar. Instead of doing this, he poured the water on his feet.
This angered the Jews who were at the temple, and they pelted Alexander, a Sadducee, with citrons which in turn angered him. He ordered the massacre of thousands of people who were in the temple at that time and prevented others from offering sacrifices at the temple following the massacre. This incident started the six-year civil war during his reign with the Pharisees leading the rebels against Jannaeus.
The Judean rebels allied themselves with the Seleucids under Demetrius III Eucaerus, who helped them defeat Jannaeus at Shechem. After they had seen his defeat, the Judean leaders changed their minds and sided with Jannaeus again. Together, they defeated Demetrius but after the war, Jannaeus was not in the mood for a reconciliation. He had the rebel leaders (Pharisees) killed along with their families, as well as had thousands of other rebels exiled to Syria and Egypt.
Other Conquests and Death
Because of his cruelty and his failings as a king, Alexander was hated by his own people, so he had to rely on foreign troops to defend his territories. He was helpless against the Arab king Aretas, who invaded Judea later in his reign and wrested from him the control of the road between Jaffa and Jerusalem. He died after an illness at the age of 51 and left the kingdom to his wife, Alexandra Salome.
Teotihuacan, the Nahuatl word for “the place or city of the gods”, was one of the biggest and most significant cities in ancient Mesoamerica. This city, located in the northern part of the Valley of Mexico, was occupied in the ancient times. Refugees from the nearby Cuicuilco further swelled its population to up to 200,000 after the eruption of the Xitle volcano. Teotihuacan became the cultural, religious, and trading center of Mesoamerica towards the end of 100 BC according to the Bible Timeline with World History.
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Teotihuacan stood out among the greatest cities of the ancient world because of its grid layout and orientation of 15° east of true north. It was one of the biggest cities of the ancient world at its height which spanned up to 20 sq km across and contained many temples, palaces, pyramids, and apartments. The Avenue of the Dead (the main road) ran north-south of the city and ended at the Pyramid of the Moon while the Pyramid of the Sun—one of the most massive structures in ancient Mesoamerica—was built east of the Avenue of the Dead. Teotihuacan was the major religious center in central America at its peak and similar religious elements found in the city were also found in urban centers far from the area.
From the ceremonial centers, royal palaces and apartment complexes fanned out from the middle of the city. These stone structures were built in different sizes according to the social status of the persons who lived in them and these were painted with colorful murals, some of which have survived until today.
The Pre-Aztec people of Teotihuacan farmed the fields surrounding this enormous city while others engaged in pottery and carving of obsidian tools. It became the center for long-distance trade in Mesoamerica and its influence spread even to the neighboring Mayas in the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific coast, and south to Honduras. Central American figures resembling those in Teotihuacan also appeared in contemporary Maya monuments in places as far as Montana and Tikal in Guatemala while mica tiles used in Teotihuacan were brought from the Zapotecs of Monte Alban, an evidence of trade between the two peoples.
References:
Read, Kay Almere., and Jason J. González. Mesoamerican Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs of Mexico and Central America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000
Cremin, Aedeen. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Richmond Hill, Ont.: Firefly Books, 2012
Picture By Michael Wassmer from France – Flickr, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1140540
1. Starting without prayer.
It is difficult to start out a scripture study session under the pressure of stress. Prayer can help relieve your tensions and clear your mind from current problems or distractions. Conducting your studies under the guidance of prayer can not only help you understand Biblical meaning, but may lead to scriptural answers to modern quandaries.
“Don’t pray when you feel like it. Have an appointment with the Lord and keep it. A man is powerful on his knees.”
~ Corrie ten Boom 2. Using today’s definitions for Biblical words. The Bible was originally written in different languages, namely Greek and Hebrew. The translation of some words into English may not have the exact meaning. If you run across a word or phrase that doesn’t quite make sense, consider doing some research on the Biblical translation to see if there is an alternate meaning. For example, the word jealous in today’s dictionary is “feeling or showing envy of someone or their achievements and advantages.” As opposed to the Biblical translation from Greek and Hebrew as warmth or heat which can be linked to the word passionate. (Go Here for a more detailed explanation.)
3. Confusing the spiritual with the literal. Just as not being sure of the exact definition for certain words, trying to take every story from the Bible literally could lead you to an intellectual dead end. Christ was often using parables or stories to explain a concept. These stories often included several meanings that would be entirely missed or misunderstood if the reader was taking them literally. Although this is an obvious concept with most avid Bible readers, it is important to keep it in mind during your studies to ensure you are not overlooking important lessons. Reminding yourself that there are several meanings behind each concept will help you get a greater view.
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4. Studying a subject without any idea of time frame. The Bible was not ordered chronologically and can be confusing when you are doing your reading from front to back. The letters of Paul are arranged from longest to shortest. That is why it can be hard to understand what he is saying. Using a reference for when those letters were written can help clarify their message. You can use this free bookmark to help.
5. Going Solo. While there is nothing wrong with reading your Bible on your own, conducting a regular scripture study is much easier when you have others involved. Maintaining a regular schedule is one of the most important aspects of Bible study. Being involved or creating your own study group in which you have responsibilities to will help keep you on task. The more regular the study group, the stronger the bond between study and friendship. Each person can lean on the other for clarification on Biblical concepts.
6. Not knowing the writer. Who is speaking and who are they speaking to? What is the goal of the writer and what circumstances were they under? With this in mind, it is much easier to understand the intent and meaning behind the writer’s words.
7. Researching Biblical stories with no idea of the historical background. Keep in mind that the writings of the Bible are based on reactions of and teachings to the people in real history. Many prophets were subject to the rulings of common historical leaders. Who were those leaders? Were they good or evil? What were their current circumstances? These factors played a major role in how those prophets were treated. Ask yourself these questions: What time period did am I reading about? What historical events were taking place? What historical events were about to happen? Where is this event? How does this affect the reactions of the people during this time? If you can answer any of those questions, your studies can become more clear. The Bible Timeline is a great tool to use for that purpose.
8. Overthinking. Going into too much depth over topics without reading the entire story can lead to confusion. “Verse overkill” makes it possible to miss the real meaning from looking at one puzzle piece instead of the entire puzzle. Keep in mind that spending a lengthy amount of time on one subject can make it easy to forget the original purpose of the topic.
9. Giving grammar too much credit. Going back to the translation of the Bible, remember that each language is written differently. The English punctuation may not match the Greek and Hebrew versions. For an “un-grammar lesson” on the Bible go here.
10. Expecting an instant understanding. There are several depths and several meanings to the Bible. For many, each time they read the Bible, they learn something they didn’t notice before. If you come across a portion of the Bible that is overwhelming, consider moving on and going back to that topic later. You may find clarification in your studies as you progress. Do no give up because one section is hard to understand.
What helps you study the Bible? Comment below with your advice.
One of the greatest persons who lived at the same time as Alexander the Great of Macedon and the Achaemenid king Darius III was the founder of the Mauryan empire Chandragupta (340-297 BC). Chandragupta Maurya is recorded on the Bible Timeline with World History around 315 BC. He was known to Greek and Roman historians as Sandrocottus (or Androcottus). He ruled from 321 BC until his death in 297 BC. The Mauryan dynasty he founded in India and parts of modern Pakistan would last until 185 BC.
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Chandragupta was the illegitimate child of a Nanda prince Sarvathasiddhi and a maid from a lower caste. Other sources such as the Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta linked him directly to the Nanda dynasty, but a later Buddhist text linked him to the Kshatriya (warrior-ruler caste) tribe called Maurya. The Jain version of his origin offered a different explanation and linked him to a family of peacock-tamers of the Magadha kingdom.
“The Jain version of his origin offered a different explanation and linked him to a family of peacock-tamers of the Magadha kingdom.”
After the death of his father, Chandragupta was left to a cowherd but was later bought by Kautilya, the Brahman teacher, and politician who would help him build an empire. He was taken to Taxila (in modern-day Rawalpindi in Pakistan) and there he learned warfare under Kautilya. He probably met Alexander of Macedon in Taxila but would escape later and raise his own army on the advice of his mentor Kautilya.
Together they removed the Nanda Dynasty, who ruled the Magadha kingdom in northern India and reigned from its capital Paliputra starting in 322 BC. After Alexander’s death, his empire split apart, and his infantry general Seleucus I Nicator fought with other generals for control over Asia including the Indus Valley region. He tried to reconquer the region that Chandragupta claimed after Alexander’s death but was defeated by the Mauryan king in 305 BC. As part of their peace treaty, Chandragupta gave hundreds of war elephants to Seleucus. The Macedonian ruler also sent the explorer Megasthenes to the Mauryan court as an ambassador.
Chandragupta expanded his empire and at its height, its territory spanned from modern-day Afghanistan to the Vindhya mountain range in central India. Kautilya became Chandragupta’s prime minister during his reign and later wrote Arthrashastra (classic Indian text on running an empire).
Chandragupta expanded his empire and conquered the southern portion of India except for the kingdom of Kalinga on the coast of the Bay of Bengal and the Tamil regions. The kingdom of Kalinga would be annexed many years later by Chandragupta’s grandson Ashoka Vardhana.
He converted to Jainism later in life and led the life of an ascetic (monk) in the city of Shravanabelagola. He abdicated the throne for his son Bindusara and died in the same city after a self-imposed starvation.
References:
Kainiraka, Sanu. From Indus to Independence – A Trek Through Indian History: Vol I Prehistory to the Fall of the Mauryas. Vij Books India Pvt, 2016
Kautalya, and L. N. Rangarajan. The Arthashastra. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 1992
Mookerji, Radhakumud. Chandragupta Maurya and His times. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1966
The Greek Bible or Septuagint was one of the first attempts to gather, translate, and arrange the books of the Bible into what it looks like today. The Septuagint came from the Latin word ‘septuaginta’ which means seventy, representing the seventy (or seventy-two) scholars or elders who translated the Jewish scriptures to Koine Greek. This occurred around 280 BC according to the Bible Timeline with World History.
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The original Septuagint initially contained the only first five books of the Bible that were attributed to Moses (Pentateuch). However, by the 2nd century AD, all of the books were included. The content varied from one community to another; some early manuscripts contained all the books of the Hebrew canon, plus apocryphal and pseudepigraphical. While others left some of that out.
The Septuagint was unable to escape revisions which began as early as 1st century BC. But there were many reliable primary sources for the Septuagint, which include the Dead Sea Scrolls, the papyrus scrolls from Egypt, the earliest Christian manuscripts, and the first Bibles.
“One of the original Dead Sea Scrolls before being unraveled by scholars.”
I. The Dead Sea Scrolls were written between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD. They contained fragments of Deuteronomy, Leviticus, Exodus, Letter of Jeremiah, and Minor Prophets. These fragments were revised to improve and conform the Greek translation with the Hebrew text.
II. The Egyptian papyrus scrolls contained much of Deuteronomy, as well as fragments of Genesis and Job which date back to the 2nd century BC to 1st century AD. They were also included in Egyptian burials along with Greek works such as the Iliad.
III. The Earliest Christian manuscripts dated from the 3rd century AD. One of the most important was the pre-Origenic papyri. These manuscripts contained fragments of the books of Ezekiel, Esther, and Daniel.
IV. The first Bibles or the major uncials (text written using capital letters). These first Bibles contained both Old and New Testaments and includes the Codex Vaticanus (B), Codex Sinaiticus (S), and Codex Alexandrinus (A).
The Codex Vaticanus (B) was created in 4th century AD and contained an almost complete copy of the Septuagint except for some fragments of Maccabees, Prayer of Manasseh, Genesis, and Psalms. The texts were written either in Rome, Asia Minor, or Egypt. They can be found today in the Vatican archives.
The Sinai Bible or Codex Sinaiticus was written almost at the same time as the Codex Vaticanus during the 4th century BC. It was preserved and discovered thousands of years later in the Monastery of Saint Catherine on Mount Sinai. It included some apocryphal books that were not included in the Hebrew Bible including:
The old and modern arrangements of the books were different from each other, and the texts were heavily corrected. Some leaves of the book are now housed in Leipzig University (43 leaves) and the British Library (347 leaves).
Another book that contained a majority of the Septuagint was the Codex Alexandrinus (A) created in the 5th century AD. It was named after the great library of Alexandria in Egypt, which was destroyed in 642 AD and had 773 pages, including the New Testament.
The early Carthaginian Christian writers, Tertullian, and Cyprian used the Latin version of the Septuagint in their works. However, it was later replaced by the Latin Vulgate translated by Jerome. The Copts of Egypt used the Septuagint as scripture in 3rd century AD.
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