Teotihuacan, located in what is now central Mexico, was one of the most powerful cities in the New World. At its peak, it extended its influence over the distant Maya highlands. According to the Bible Timeline with World History, this occurred around the beginning of the 3rd century AD. Particularly the cities of Tonina in Mexico, as well as Kaminaljuyu and Iximche in Guatemala.
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“Excavated section of the Acropolis. Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala City.”
Kaminaljuyu was one of the cities that saw the rise and influence of Teotihuacan, a massive Maya city located in the central highlands of Guatemala. Traces of the Esperanza culture (an offshoot of Teotihuacan) were found in the excavation of Kaminaljuyu. The architectural style of talud-tablero (sloping and vertical panels) and its burial practices are a prime example. It was possible that the immigrants or invaders from central Mexico brought with them their own architects so that a replica of the structures of Teotihuacan were built in Kaminaljuyu.
The Esperanza culture burials in Kaminaljuyu was a treasure trove of information about Teotihuacan influence in the Maya highlands. Recovered from the tombs were Teotihuacan-style pottery, a combination of Maya and Teotihuacan pottery, and pottery from the neighboring Maya lowland region (Peten). A slate mirror from the Veracruz culture, jade jewelry, shells, metates, and other artifacts were also recovered from the tombs. Up to what extent it exercised its influence over these cities is still being debated by Maya historians.
The pre-Columbian Huastec civilization flourished near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in what is now the state of Veracruz. It is not as popular as other Mesoamerican civilizations, but it is no less as intriguing as the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Aztec, and other Mesoamerican civilizations. The Huastec cities shared many traits with other civilizations which include the construction of pyramids, ball courts, plazas, not to mention canal systems that allowed the people to improve the cultivation of food in a tropical environment. This is recorded on the Bible Timeline with World History starting around 325 AD.
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One of the major cities of the Huastec civilization was El Tajin with a sizable population at its peak. To support the needs of the people who lived in or near the city, the surrounding areas were used for the cultivation of Mesoamerican food staples such as maize, squash, and beans. Elevated canals were constructed to divert fresh water and irrigate the raised fields as shown by the canal systems located in areas under the control of El Tajin.
Santa Luisa in Veracruz was one of the food production centers which supplied these staple foods to the people of El Tajin. With the construction of canal systems and catchment terraces on the hills. The Huastec also used the canals to distribute surface run-off from flooded areas to irrigate their fields.
References: CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=43835
Doolittle, William Emery. Canal Irrigation in Prehistoric Mexico: The Sequence of Technological Change. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990
Faust, Katherine A., and Kim N. Richter. The Huasteca: Culture, History, and Interregional Exchange. University of Oklahoma Press, 2015
Rome was at its lowest point during the rule of the Military Emperors (235-284 AD according to the Bible Timeline with World History). In a period of 49 years, fourteen people held the title of emperor, most of whom seized and consolidated their powers through their command of the military. The years of the soldier emperors were characterized by instability, civil war, political turmoil, and poverty. It was also a period when the Germanic tribes and Rome’s long-time nemesis, the Persians, stepped up their invasion of Roman territories.
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The rule of the Military Emperors and the weakness that came with it was the result of a combination of complex problems that hounded the empire for a long time. The population of Rome decreased after the repeated invasions of the Germanic tribes and Persians. At the same time, the bad financial policies the previous leaders imposed took its toll on the empire and its citizens. The rulers themselves depended on the military to keep them in power, but the high cost of maintaining a private army and the lack of available Roman soldiers pushed them to recruit men from the outlying provinces. This policy was problematic, as the new soldiers who were not of Roman descent, were not compelled to loyalty.
As Rome’s economy slowed down, trade also declined and many workers remained unemployed. Corruption, tax evasion, and inflation were also rampant. Farmers abandoned their lands and became tenants to larger ones instead. Others chose the life of banditry if being a tenant farmer did not work out.
Soldier Emperors
The first of the soldier emperors was Maximinus Thrax who rose as emperor in 235 AD. He was chosen by the Praetorian Guard and confirmed by the Roman Senate. Maximinus was born in a village in Thrace from parents who were peasants. He started his career in the army during the reign of Septimus Severus. Coup attempts were frequent during his reign, but he was capable enough as an army commander as he helped drive back the Germans who invaded the Roman frontier.
Maximinus’ popularity plummeted when he increased taxes during his reign. He was so unpopular the Romans in the province of North Africa pushed the senate to proclaim the proconsul Gordian I as emperor. This was granted (with his son Gordian II as co-emperor because of his father’s advanced age). However, Capelianus, the governor of the province of Numidia and loyal ally of Maximinus, killed Gordian II in the Battle of Carthage. The elderly Gordian killed himself after hearing of the tragic end of his son.
After the death of Gordian and his son, the senate decided to give leadership to senators Balbinus and Pupienus while Maximinus was still emperor. Maximinus decided to return from Pannonia to confront the new “emperors.” Maximinus was killed by the soldiers of the Second Parthian Legion while he and his troops besieged the Roman city of Aquileia.
Balbinus and Pupienus were suspicious of each other from the start of their reign. It escalated into full-blown mutual hatred as the months passed. Both were unpopular with the Roman soldiers from the preferential treatment they gave to the German guards. Because of this, they were assassinated when the Praetorian Guard stormed the palace. This was only stopped when the German bodyguards decided to attack. Their antagonism of each other was so great that until the last minute, Balbinus and Pupienus argued on what they should do during the attack. Gordian III, the teenage grandson of Gordian II, replaced them and was approved by the Senate, the Roman soldiers, and the people.
The new Roman emperor Gordian III married the daughter of the prefect of the Praetorian Guard Timesitheus. She then ruled Rome on Gordian’s behalf. His father-in-law died years later and the young emperor was left to face on his own the Persian king Shapur I who invaded Mesopotamia. Philip the Arab, one of the prefects of the Praetorian Guard (the other being his brother Priscus, also an important official), led the battle in Mesopotamia as a regent of Gordian III. The young emperor died later on in Mesopotamia under questionable circumstances. It was said that Philip fabricated intrigue to have Gordian removed from the position of emperor. While in a foreign land, had him murdered, and sent a letter back to Rome that the previous emperor died of an illness. Philip had himself proclaimed by the Senate as emperor right after Gordian’s death and had the tragic boy emperor deified.
Philip proved himself a competent military leader when he negotiated peace with Shapur instead of an engagement in a long war that would have further strained the Roman economy. It was during Philip’s reign that Rome celebrated its 1,000th anniversary. However, the Germanic tribes invaded the Roman frontier in the north once again and Philip was forced to send Decius, a former senator, and consul, to counter the attacks. Decius was hailed as the emperor by the soldiers in the Danube front and he defeated Philip soon after to become the sole emperor.
“Roman ruins at Abritus, site of the battle”
Decius was known for two things: the bolder, more frequent invasion of Goths into the Roman territory and his persecution of Christians. He was killed in the Battle of Abritus against the Goths along with his son and co-emperor Herennius Etruscus. Decius was followed by his younger son, Hostilian, as emperor, but he would later die by the plague of Cyprian. Trebonianus Gallus, a general and co-emperor with Decius, took over. Gallus reigned only for a total of two years and he made his son, Volusianus, a co-emperor. His rule was marred by the invasion of the Persians in Armenia and the Goths in the Danube.
They were defeated by Aemilian, the governor of Moesia. He was proclaimed emperor soon after. Gallus was assassinated by his own troops while they stationed in the Upper Rhine. Then they proclaimed their commander, Valerian, as the new emperor. Aemilian reigned only for three months and he was killed by his own soldiers when they were on the brink of defeat by Valerian’s troops in a battle near Spoleto.
Valerian divided the responsibilities of the emperor between himself and his son, Gallienus. The father led the troops that fought successfully in the east while Gallienus became commander of the Roman legion in the west. But Valerian was forced to retreat and negotiate with Shapur when a plague cut off the size of his army. Unfortunately, Shapur decided to kill the bodyguards who went with Valerian and he became the first Roman emperor taken as captive.
While Valerian was a prisoner of war in Persia, the Germanic tribes that threatened Rome’s frontiers invaded once again and the perceived weakness of the empire pushed some provinces to declare their own independence. His son Gallienus was murdered by one of his soldiers and Valerian was killed in Persia soon after—a brutal punishment the third century Christians whom Valerian persecuted thought he rightfully deserved.
Claudius II Gothicus, another former soldier, took on the role as emperor after the death of Valerian and Gallienus. He reigned only for more than one year before he died of the plague and was replaced by his brother, Quintillus who reigned only for more than 100 days before he, too, died for unknown reasons. Another soldier, Aurelian, was declared as emperor by his troops. He brought a little of Rome’s former stability back by instilling discipline in the army. He also had a wall built around the city—an acknowledgment that Rome was not the secure city it once was. After a reign of five years, the Praetorian Guard assassinated Aurelian in Thrace.
Six more emperors (Tacitus, Florian, Probus, Carus, Numerian, and Carinus) followed Aurelian and all of them met violent deaths. The rule of the Military Emperors would be replaced by the Tetrarchy (leadership of four people) which started when emperor Diocletian ascended into power.
References:
Picture By Vladimir Petkov – Атриума на Абритус // The atrium at Abritus, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14812199
Blois, Lukas De., and R. J. Van Der. Spek. An Introduction to the Ancient World. London: Routledge, 1997
Meijer, Fik. Emperors Don’t Die in Bed. London: Routledge, 2004
http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/roman-empire/timeline-of-roman-emperors.htm
The Emperors of Adoption were made up of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty rulers who passed the domination of Rome not to their own relatives but through adoption (as the name implies). This is listed on the Biblical Timeline with World History starting around 100 AD. Five of the seven emperors were adopted by the former emperor, with the exception of the first and last ones. This concept was not unique to this dynasty as Augustus adopted his son-in-law Tiberius and Claudius adopted his grand-nephew Nero during the rule of the Julian dynasty.
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Rome was prosperous during the reign of the Emperors of Adoption. The policy of adoption was widely credited for the stability the Romans experienced during this era. This, for the most part, was based on merit—an outright rejection of the Julian dynasty’s preference to blood relatives as next rulers which, most of the time, led to a bloody reign.
Nerva
The assassination of Emperor Domitian became the end of the short-lived Flavian dynasty. He was replaced immediately by former consul Nerva. The Senate had done so because Nerva came from a family of senators and they wanted to prevent another civil war. However, his reign would be short-lived—less than two years—as some of the Praetorian Guards who remained loyal to Domitian threatened him with death. He was spared, but those who took part in the assassination of Domitian were not. Petronius, a prefect of the Praetorian Guard and Parthenius, the former emperor’s chamberlain, were both were quickly killed.
This event shook Nerva to the core; he decided to start the retreat into private life and adopted the governor of Upper Rhine, Trajan, as his heir since he had no sons of his own. Although his rule was too short and wracked with chaos during the earliest months, he was credited as the one who started Rome on the path to stability. On January 28, 98 AD, Nerva died from a fever and Trajan rose as Rome’s new emperor.
“The Column of Trajan, in Trajan’s Forum, Rome”
Trajan
Trajan was stationed near the Rhine river in Germany when Nerva died. After the news had reached him of the death, he secured the northern borders of the empire before he journeyed back home. It took him eighteen months to wrap this up, and when he arrived in Rome, he ushered in the start of stability and prosperity that characterized the reign of the Emperors of Adoption.
Nerva’s choice was a good one as Trajan was one of the finest Emperors Rome ever had. He focused on the improvement of Rome’s roads, sewage system, and harbors. In addition, he extended the empire’s territories through military campaigns in Asia and Europe. This leadership endeared him to the Roman soldiers as well as its citizens. He was honored with the Trajan’s Column, which depicts his victory in the Dacian Wars. He respected the Roman Senate—the complete opposite of the autocratic Julian dynasty emperors, who frequently disregarded the opinions of the Senate.
The number of Christians rose during the time of Trajan, but so did the oppression of the Jewish population and the revolts that followed. Pliny the Younger, then governor of the provinces of Bythinia and Pontus, wrote to him about how he should deal with the Christians. Trajan’s policy was simple and more lenient than the previous emperors’ as shown by his response to Pliny:
“They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it—that is, by worshiping our gods—even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.”
He campaigned against Parthia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia, and quashed the Jewish rebellion in Palestine. It was during his time when Rome expanded to its fullest extent, but the brutal repression of the Jews marred his reputation as a good ruler. He personally led a military campaign as far as Ctesiphon against the Parthian empire. He then decided to withdraw his troops and go back to Rome. Trajan, however, would never see Rome again as he died in Cilicia from a stroke at the age of sixty-four.
Hadrian
Hadrian was the governor of Syria when Trajan died, and he hurried to Rome to secure his succession as the new emperor. The Roman Senate had no other choice, as Trajan adopted Hadrian years before. His path to succession was sufficiently greased with generous contributions to the Praetorian Guard.
Much of the Roman world experienced stability and prosperity during his reign, except for Judaea where another revolt boiled over. This was started after Hadrian attempted to build a temple of Jupiter on the grounds of the Second Temple. This revolt was led by Simon Bar Kokhba. However, he and the Jewish forces were up against the more powerful Roman legion. They were first deprived of food, and many were massacred. Then territories of Judaea, Galilee, and Samaria were combined into the province of Syria Palaestina.
The empire’s expansion stopped during the reign of Hadrian, and he had the Romans in Britain construct the famous Hadrian’s Wall to make a clear statement to the Picts and other Celtic tribes from the north. This set the boundary of Rome which should not crossed. It stood twenty feet high and took approximately ten years to finish.
Hadrian died at the age of 62 after a heart attack, but not before he adopted Antoninus Pius as his heir on the condition of the latter’s adoption of the future emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.
Antoninus Pius
The reign of Antoninus Pius was unexpectedly long—more than what Hadrian had bargained for when he adopted the middle-aged Antoninus Pius as a safer bet instead of his first choice: the younger Marcus Aurelius (who was just 16 at the time of Hadrian’s death). But to Roman citizens’ relief, his reign was generally peaceful though uneventful. With the exception of a big celebration of Rome’s 900th anniversary. He was also named as ‘Pius’ for his reverence to Hadrian and his wife, Faustina—both of whom he deified. Antoninus also smoothed Marcus Aurelius’ path to succession by his adopted son’s marriage to his daughter, Faustina the Younger. He died in 161 AD after a twenty-three-year reign.
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus
Marcus Aurelius was already forty years old when Antoninus Pius died, and he came to the throne somewhat reluctantly. He had the heart of a philosopher and scholar who, it seemed, was pushed by his adoptive father, Hadrian, and the Roman Senate to take the position as emperor. He lacked the enthusiasm for the role, and he appointed as co-emperor his adoptive brother Lucius Verus.
Marcus Aurelius remained in Rome while Lucius Verus went off to war against Parthian king Vologases IV in Armenia. Lucius’ troops took back Armenia, captured the Parthian city of Ctesiphon, and marched back to Rome. They, however, brought home a more dangerous threat than the Parthians—the plague.
The Antonine plague (most likely smallpox) came with symptoms such as a sore throat, pustules, and fever. It raged in the city for three years and obliterated a great portion of the population including the Roman troops. The tribes on the other side of the Danube river used the opportunity to invade Roman territories in the north. Both emperors decided to head to the front and lead the troops themselves. However, the tribes were repelled even before they reached their destination, so they turned back home. Lucius Verus died on the way back, and Marcus Aurelius buried his adoptive brother with full honors in Rome before he returned to the Danube. It was there, in the chaotic Danube front, that he had the time to think about philosophy and wrote the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. There, he declared his unhappiness with the burden of being an emperor, but he bore it with saintliness and sense of responsibility that endeared him to the Romans.
Marcus Aurelius broke off the adoption policy that the emperors before him used to secure the succession and appointed his son Commodus as co-emperor at the age of fifteen. He died in 180 AD, possibly from cancer, on the German front.
Commodus
If there’s one emperor who could compete with Caligula and Nero when it comes to madness and corruption, it would be Commodus, the son of the saintly Marcus Aurelius. He was the direct opposite of his father. It was rumored that Marcus Aurelius was not his father and that he was the product of his mother’s affair (of which there were many) with a gladiator.
As the son of an emperor, Commodus received the best possible education Rome could offer its citizens. But all the years of education was useless as he neglected Rome during his reign and gave the duties of the emperor to his favorites. He devoted his life to leisure and gladiatorial contests where he displayed excessive brutality to wounded soldiers, people with disabilities, and animals. It appeared that he sank deeper into insanity when he proclaimed that he was the reincarnation of Hercules, and he walked around the city dressed in a lion cloak with a club (just like the Nemean Lion of Hercules’ Twelve Labors). He also executed those who conspired to assassinate him in 182 AD, including his older sister Lucilla.
He neglected his duties and spent so much money on these gladiatorial contests that the Roman economy was strained during his reign. The people finally had enough and in 192 AD, he was poisoned by his concubine Marcia and his chamberlain Electus in his bath. When this failed, they brought in Narcissus, his wrestling partner and had Commodus strangled to death.
The death of the tyrant Nero signaled the end of the domination of the Julian dynasty over the Roman world. This led to the Flavian Dynasty starting around 69 AD according to the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History. As the rule of one dynasty ended, competition rose among Roman factions once again to see who would dominate this vast empire. One of those who were successful (temporarily) was the ex-consul Galba, who also had the backing of Roman troops. He was supported by Otho, the governor of Lusitania and the ex-husband of Nero’s wife Poppaea, who offered his own troops in addition to Galba’s.
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Galba was removed from the position of Imperator when Roman soldiers who supported him switched sides to Otho. This was due to Galba’s failure to pay them for their support. He was killed in the Roman Forum, and he was replaced with his former ally Otho, whom the Senate immediately confirmed as princeps as well as imperator. However, it seemed that Otho was never destined for happy endings. As soon as he came to rule, a rebellion brewed within the troops stationed in the German territory of the empire under the command of a general named Vitellius. After a reign of just three months as emperor, Otho’s troops were defeated at the Battle of Cremona, and he committed suicide to avert a full-scale civil war. Otho was replaced by Vitellius, who, unfortunately for Rome, was cut from the same cloth as the overindulgent emperors before him. He dissolved the Praetorian Guard and installed his own loyal men to protect him, which earned the anger of those who lost their positions. Like Galba and other Julian emperors, he also indulged in vice excessively which earned resentment of the soldiers who fought for him. The unhappy Roman legions from the east decided to support Vespasian, then governor of Syria, to replace Vitellius as imperator.
“The Triumph of Titus, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema”
Vespasian
Meanwhile, as governor, Vespasian succeeded in putting down a rebellion in Judaea led by the Jewish rebels called the Zealots. He and his son Titus had driven the rebels into Jerusalem, and his troops (without Vespasian himself) marched to Rome to help him to the throne. Vitellius’ troops were defeated in Cremona by Vespasian’s troops, and they later caught up with Vitellius and killed him. Vespasian was proclaimed as princeps by the Roman Senate. However, he waited until the rebellion in Judaea was successfully quashed before he traveled to Rome to accept his new position. Before he left for Rome in 70 AD, Jerusalem was only a shadow of its former glory; the city walls were broken down and the Second Temple was destroyed by fire.
Vespasian showed his shrewdness when he reshuffled the commanders of the troops to prevent them from banding against him. Additionally, he lowered taxes and did not use treason trials to condemn his enemies. These strategies were so effective that the Roman empire was generally peaceful and stable under his rule. With the exception of the province of Judaea where a revolt reached its climax in the fortress of Masada. The members of the Sicarii, an extremist branch of the Zealots, were besieged by the Romans in the fortress of Masada for years. When the fortress was finally breached, the rebels (along with their families) committed mass suicide. Judaea and the whole of Palestine became provinces of Syria soon after.
Vespasian died of natural causes in 79 AD, and his son Titus was confirmed as heir immediately.
Titus
Titus was the commander of Roman troops during the time of the First Jewish-Roman War. He had a reputation for ruthlessness in dealing with his enemies. This cruelty was probably out of necessity as he made a complete turnaround when he was proclaimed as princeps. His administration was orderly, and Rome was stable during the first few months of his reign. Unfortunately, disaster after disaster struck Rome during Titus’ short reign.
First was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius which killed more than two thousand people. Then the fire which ravaged a great section of Rome, and finally, an epidemic which took the lives of what remained of the refugees. Titus had reigned for three short, yet tragic years before he died of a fever at the age of forty-two in 81 AD.
Domitian
The Praetorian Guard and the Roman Senate had no choice but proclaimed Domitian as imperator and princeps upon the death of his brother Titus. He was a just ruler who weeded out corruption in the government. He also policed public morals to the point of severity (he had a Vestal Virgin buried alive when he discovered her affairs). He proclaimed that he was now “Lord and God” of the Romans and issued an order that he should be addressed in both titles. Although he was not as cruel as the emperors that came before him, this rigidity choked the Roman citizens who gradually resented his tight-fisted administration.
This resentment would finally push his own chamberlain, his niece, and the leader of the Praetorian Guard to conspire against him. In 96 AD, Domitian was stabbed to death by Stephanus, the steward of his niece Flavia Domitilla whose husband Domitian executed for atheism.
According to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History, the Julians ruled Rome around the time of Christ. Listed below are the names of those that reigned under that name, followed by a summary of each one. Each one ends up worse than the next and wickedness soon leads to their downfall.
Augustus (Octavian)
The assassination of Julius Caesar left Rome without a clear ruler. Various claimants (including Caesar’s adopted nephew Brutus, his general Mark Antony, and his grand-nephew Octavian) fought for power. Octavian (later called Augustus) emerged as the clear winner in this three-way contest for domination of Rome in 30 BC (four-way if Mark Antony’s former ally Lepidus was included).
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But there was one thing that stood in the way of Octavian’s total rule of Rome: its Senate. It was likely that he would need to say goodbye to his ambition of dominating Rome if he were to go openly against the Roman Senate. He pretended to respect it and in return, the Senate allowed him to remain as consul. He also received extraordinary powers over the provinces as well as the troops that were stationed there. Octavian was allowed to create the Praetorian Guard, which seemed like a simple group of bodyguards at first, but it eventually grew to be his own private army.
The Senate gave Octavian the title of Augustus in 29 BC. Although his official title was still that of a consul, he had all the powers of an emperor. He invented the title “princeps” which means “first one or leader”; a word that would later evolve into the word “prince”. The one thing that did not work out well for Augustus was his lack of an heir as he had no sons of his own. So he had his daughter marry her cousin Marcellus (who died after a year) and to a man named Agrippa (who also died) to produce the son that would be his heir. His quest for an heir led Augustus to marry Julia off to Tiberius, her stepbrother, but this was unsuccessful too. Julia’s sons with Agrippa died young while the youngest was so vicious that the possibility of making him an heir was out of the question. The only one left to be his heir was his stepson Tiberius and Augustus gave him more power as he aged. Tiberius was proclaimed as proconsul and princeps by the Senate, and Augustus died in 14 AD.
Tiberius
Augustus’ stepson Tiberius was well into middle age when he was confirmed as Rome’s princeps. He followed Augustus’ lead and repeatedly declined the recognition as head of state so he would not look too anxious for power. He finally accepted, when he saw the Senate’s exasperation with what looked like his humility. He was soon confirmed as the new head of state. Tiberius chose his nephew, Germanicus as his heir instead of his own son, Drusus. However, the death of Germanicus left him no choice but to make his son as the new heir. When Drusus died, Tiberius became despondent and left Rome for the island of Capri where he indulged in vice with other people.
In 31 BC, Tiberius brutally suppressed a rebellion led by the commander of the Praetorian Guard, Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius had the commander and his family killed along with hundreds of people who he thought had plotted against him. It was during Tiberius’ rule when Jesus of Nazareth upset the Jewish religious establishment with his teachings. He was later crucified under Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judea, at the insistence of the Jewish high priests.
Tiberius lapsed into a coma after an injury to his shoulder, and his doctor gave him only a day to live. His intended successor, Caligula, was proclaimed as the new emperor but to their surprise, Tiberius recovered and asked for something to eat. Macro, the commander of the Praetorian guard and supporter of Caligula, smothered him with blankets to prevent a confusing and embarrassing situation.
Caligula
Caligula was the son of Tiberius’ nephew Germanicus, and he became emperor in 37 BC after Tiberius’ death. Rome breathed a sigh of relief when Caligula gave amnesty to political prisoners and initiated tax reforms even after he was given extraordinary powers by the Roman Senate. It seemed that peace was within reach during the reign of Caligula—the opposite of the turbulent years during Tiberius. Unfortunately, this peace would not last as Caligula was no less vicious as his predecessor and great-uncle Tiberius (even worse).
Murder, promiscuity, cruelty, and vice were ever present during Caligula’s reign; he did not even spare the members of his own family from his cruelty. The news of his madness persisted after he lavished gifts upon his prized horse, Incitatus, and wanted to appoint him as consul. Years later, Caligula got rid of the consuls as well as the Senate, which made Rome under the authority of an autocrat. His excessive cruelty continued and by 41 AD, he was murdered by the Praetorian Guard along with his wife and daughter.
“The Remorse of the Emperor Nero after the Murder of his Mother, by John William Waterhouse”
Claudius
Caligula died without an heir, but his uncle, Claudius, had bribed the Praetorian Guard to support him in his ambition to be proclaimed as princeps. The Praetorian Guard had a lot to lose if they did not support him, so he was confirmed as princeps, high priest, and emperor days after the death of Caligula. Unfortunately for Rome and Claudius’ enemies, he was as vicious as the past emperors. He executed many of Rome’s senators and noblemen. The Roman troops were also successful in putting down the rebellion in Britain during Claudius’ reign.
Claudius had his wife, Messalina, executed after the discovery of her affair with another man and her part in a plot against him. He then married his niece Agrippina, adopted her son from a previous marriage, and renamed the boy as Nero. The emperor named the young boy as his heir, but the ambitious mother decided to poison Claudius after this to secure the position for her son.
Nero
Nero was just sixteen when Emperor Claudius died, and he was named as princeps after he bribed the Praetorian guards to secure his succession. Wary of any rival to his domination, he ordered the execution of Britannicus, Claudius’ son with Messalina, as well as the exile of Agrippina, his own mother.
Nero’s first five years as emperor were generally peaceful, but insanity seemed to run in his family, and he sank to the same corruption that affected the emperors before him. He had his own mother killed, became increasingly corrupt, wasted Rome’s tax money on his vices, and resumed the notorious treason trials started by Caligula. In addition, the Roman troops in Britain also went on a rampage and cruelly suppressed the tribes that lived there. Because of this event, the Celtic queen Boudica took her revenge by killing off the Roman troops stationed in Camulodunum (modern Colchester). She and her allies were eventually defeated, but the Romans in Britain reconsidered their views of the local tribes after this event.
Back home, Nero became more erratic, and his insanity became worse during the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. The Christians, long been a target for persecution, became Nero’s scapegoat for this event, and he punished them with a renewed viciousness that repelled the Romans even further. It was also during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were condemned to death in Rome. Nero turned so mad that he killed his wife Poppaea (who was pregnant at that time) during a rage and had a young boy castrated afterward so he could marry him.
The Romans finally had enough and in 68 AD, the Praetorian guards conspired against Nero to get rid of him. According to Roman biographer Suetonius, he stabbed himself to death after he was forced to flee Rome. The death of Nero ended the reign of the Julians in Rome which was soon followed by the Four Emperors and the Flavian Dynasty.
The Hopewell Culture flourished during the first millennium AD which is where it is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History. It was located in the Upper Mississippi region of Ohio. Its influence reached as far as some parts of Wisconsin, Mississippi, Nebraska, Minnesota, Indiana, and Virginia. But its center was found in the Ohio, Scioto, and Miami Valleys of Ohio with ceremonial mounds dotting the landscape where the people once lived.
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The term ‘Hopewell’ does not refer to any particular Native American tribe that lived in the region; instead, it refers to a culture built around the people’s religious and ceremonial cult that made its funerary practices one of its distinct marks. “Hopewell” was also the last name of the family who owned the farm where some of the earthworks were discovered back in the late 1800s.
Hopewell Burial Mounts
The Hopewell people lived in small villages around the major waterways and rivers that snake through the Upper Mississippi region. Their homes were simple rectangles with wattle and daub walls and finished with thatched roofs. The Hopewell people did not use the massive mounds found in the area as settlements, but as ceremonial places for the deceased. The simple mounds were built in various geometric shapes (square, circle, rectangle, and octagon). Rectangular or conical mounds were specifically used for cremation and burial. The Hopewell people made a distinction between the common and more important people of their community through the cremation and burial of the leaders and others who were on top of the social ladder. More elaborate burials were reserved for hunters which showed their importance to the Hopewell culture.
The Hopewell people were hunter-gatherers, and they took advantage of the surrounding waterways as another food source. Later, they transitioned to the cultivation of squash, sunflower, maygrass, marsh elder, and other native plants. Their trade networks spanned the Great Lakes area, the Carolinas, and even as far as the Gulf of Mexico. Trade materials recovered from the Hopewell site included copper, mica, and obsidian.
For unknown reasons, the sites were abandoned around 400 AD, which followed the disappearance of the Hopewell culture.
Zealous, brutal, and loyal to his religious heritage—this was how the book of Acts introduced the man called Saul of Tarsus who quietly approved of and watched the death of Christianity’s first martyr, Stephen. The death of Stephen and the persecution that followed was a blow to the community of believers and it pushed many others to leave Jerusalem for the surrounding towns. Saul, meanwhile, started the search for the members of this new movement with the intent of imprisoning them. The conversion of Saul is recorded on the Bible Timeline Poster around 34 AD.
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Christianity continued to spread despite the threats of imprisonment and death the believers were subjected to. The Way (as it was then called) had reached beyond Jerusalem into Samaria, the Palestinian cities of Gaza and Ascalon, as well as the coastal city of Caesarea (Acts 8). By the time Saul intensified his efforts in the persecution, the word about Jesus Christ had spread to the Syrian city of Damascus. He asked the high priest for an authorization letter to the synagogue in Damascus so he could bring back the new converts to Jerusalem as prisoners.
” Paul the apostle was originally known as Saul of Tarsus”
As he neared the city of Damascus, a blinding light from heaven flashed around him and Saul fell to the ground. A voice called out his name and asked why he had persecuted him, which Saul answered with another question, “Who are you, Lord?” To his amazement, it was Jesus himself who called out to Saul and surprisingly, he was told to continue to Damascus where he would be told what to do next. He rose as a blind man after this encounter. He had to be led to the city by his companions. For three days, Saul did not eat nor drink, and he languished in the city—blind and helpless.
A man who lived in another part of Damascus was commanded by the Lord to go to Judas’ house on Straight Street, look for a blind man called Saul, and place his hands on the afflicted to restore his sight. The man was Ananias, and he was understandably hesitant; Saul of Tarsus was known as a man who was unflinching in his goal of stamping out the new followers of Christ. Ananias knew this. So why would Jesus send him now to his own “executioner”?
But the Lord told Ananias to go just the same as Saul would be the instrument with which the name of Jesus would be known by the “Gentiles and their kings and before the people of Israel.” (Acts 9:15) Ananias obeyed the Lord and went to the house on Straight Street to minister to a former enemy. Saul’s eyesight was restored after “something like scales fell from his eyes.” Now that he was whole again, Saul chose to be baptized and regained his strength for several days before he set off to the synagogue—not on a quest to purge the followers of Christ, but to preach about Jesus of Nazareth.
Stephen, whose name means “crown or glory,” was described by Luke in Acts 6:8 as “a man full of God’s grace and power, did great wonders and miraculous signs among the people.” Unfortunately, this powerful personality and faithfulness resulted in his death and turned him into the first Christian martyr. According to the Bible Timeline Chart, Stephen lived shortly after the time of Christ.
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The book of Acts did not offer Stephen’s origins. He came to the scene as one of the men appointed by the apostles to be in charge of the church’s food program for the poor. (Acts 6:7) His wisdom was so superior to others that he earned the anger of the members of the “Synagogue of the Freedmen” (Jews who were from parts of Libya, Egypt, and Asia Minor). They falsely accused him of blasphemy. Stephen was seized and brought in front of the Sanhedrin to face the accusations that were reinforced by false witnesses (Acts 6:8-15).
“Stoning of Saint Stephen by Paolo Uccello”
There were two accusations hurled against him by his enemies: first, that he spread the word that Jesus would destroy the temple in Jerusalem and second, that Jesus would change the customs laid down during the time of Moses. When asked by the high priest if the charges brought against him were true, Stephen delivered an enduring speech in front of the Sanhedrin (assembly). He showed his knowledge of Israel’s history from the time of Abraham in Mesopotamia to the time of Solomon and denounced the people for their persecution of the prophets.
This condemnation made Stephen’s enemies more furious and they covered their ears after he said that he saw “heaven open and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God.” The people dragged him out of the city and stoned him to death, but Stephen was able to ask the Lord to receive his spirit before he died. He also forgave the mob for this brutal and undeserved punishment for false accusations. Meanwhile, a man called Saul watched on with approval for Stephen’s death and planned to hound the believers of this new movement.
The Zapotec civilization rose in the Oaxaca Valley at roughly the same time as Teotihuacan and the Maya civilizations near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Small agricultural settlements were built in the Valley of Oaxaca during the Formative period, and these villages evolved into complex societies that revolved around the Zapotec religion and politics. The people eventually moved from the valley floor to the Monte Alban ridge which offered a spectacular and defensive view of the plains below. This started around 100 AD according to the Biblical Timeline with World History.
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“The west side platform at the Monte Alban pyramid complex.”
Monte Alban became the capital of the Zapotec civilization sometime between 150 BC to 150 AD, and it became the dominant force in the Oaxacan highlands. At its peak, it was one of the largest cities in Mesoamerica with a population of more than 10,000. The Zapotecs chiseled away at the limestone top of Monte Alban to create a leveled surface and started the large-scale construction of the main plaza, ball court, public buildings, and temples. The common people built their houses on the terraced hillside close to the ceremonial centers, while the members of the elite lived in compounds located north of Monte Alban.
This period also produced some of Zapotecs’ best works of art recently recovered from Monte Alban, including the jade bat god, the Scribe of Cuilapan, and various pottery figures from tombs.
