Kat Cendana – Page 38 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on June 10, 2016September 6, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Tertullian in Apology, and Augustine in the City of God.

The Greek Bible or Septuagint was one of the first attempts to gather, translate, and arrange the books of the Bible into what it looks like today. The Septuagint came from the Latin word ‘septuaginta’ which means seventy, representing the seventy (or seventy-two) scholars or elders who translated the Jewish scriptures to Koine Greek. This occurred around 280 BC according to the Bible Timeline with World History.

The original Septuagint initially contained the only first five books of the Bible that were attributed to Moses (Pentateuch). However, by the 2nd century AD, all of the books were included. The content varied from one community to another; some early manuscripts contained all the books of the Hebrew canon, plus apocryphal and pseudepigraphical. While others left some of that out.

Tertullian

Apology

The Septuagint was unable to escape revisions which began as early as 1st century BC. But there were many reliable primary sources for the Septuagint, which include the Dead Sea Scrolls, the papyrus scrolls from Egypt, the earliest Christian manuscripts, and the first Bibles.

I. The Dead Sea Scrolls were written between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD. They contained fragments of Deuteronomy, Leviticus, Exodus, Letter of Jeremiah, and Minor Prophets. These fragments were revised to improve and conform the Greek translation with the Hebrew text.

II. The Egyptian papyrus scrolls contained much of Deuteronomy, as well as fragments of Genesis and Job which date back to the 2nd century BC to 1st century AD. They were also included in Egyptian burials along with Greek works such as the Iliad.

III. The Earliest Christian manuscripts dated from the 3rd century AD. One of the most important was the pre-Origenic papyri. These manuscripts contained fragments of the books of Ezekiel, Esther, and Daniel.

IV. The first Bibles or the major uncials (text written using capital letters). These first Bibles contained both Old and New Testaments and includes the Codex Vaticanus (B), Codex Sinaiticus (S), and Codex Alexandrinus (A).

The Codex Vaticanus (B) was created in 4th century AD and contained an almost complete copy of the Septuagint except for some fragments of Maccabees, Prayer of Manasseh, Genesis, and Psalms. The texts were written either in Rome, Asia Minor, or Egypt. They can be found today in the Vatican archives.

The Sinai Bible or Codex Sinaiticus was written almost at the same time as the Codex Vaticanus during the 4th century BC. It was preserved and discovered thousands of years later in the Monastery of Saint Catherine on Mount Sinai. It included some apocryphal books that were not included in the Hebrew Bible including:

* 2 Esdras
* Tobit
* Judit
* 1 & 4 Maccabees
* Wisdom
* Sirach

The old and modern arrangements of the books were different from each other, and the texts were heavily corrected. Some leaves of the book are now housed in Leipzig University (43 leaves) and the British Library (347 leaves).

Another book that contained a majority of the Septuagint was the Codex Alexandrinus (A) created in the 5th century AD. It was named after the great library of Alexandria in Egypt, which was destroyed in 642 AD and had 773 pages, including the New Testament.

The early Carthaginian Christian writers, Tertullian, and Cyprian used the Latin version of the Septuagint in their works. However, it was later replaced by the Latin Vulgate translated by Jerome. The Copts of Egypt used the Septuagint as scripture in 3rd century AD.

References:
Decker, Rodney J. Reading Koine Greek: An Introduction and Integrated Workbook. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academi c, 2015
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1765-aristeas-letter-of
https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Apocrypha-Books-List/
http://wesley.nnu.edu/sermons-essays-books/noncanonical-literature/noncanonical-literature-ot-pseudepigrapha/.
Dines, Jennifer M., and Michael A. Knibb. The Septuagint. London: T & T Clark, 2004
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04086a
http://codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/
http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/sacredtexts/codexalex.html
Picture By Abraham Meir Habermann, 1901-1980 – http://archive.org/details/scrollsfromdeser00habeuoft, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19883960

Posted on June 9, 2016June 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Chavin People of Andes Make Llama Jerky; Raise Potatoes, Quinoa, and Maize

The highlands of the Ancash region used to be the center of Chavin civilization. Its influence spread out from central Peru to the northern and southern coast. Their development of Lama Jerky, potatoes, quinoa, and maize is recorded on the Bible Timeline with World History around 300 BC.

Ancient Peru was a land of stark contrast and divided into three different regions: the coast, the highlands, and the eastern rainforests. The coastal and the western highland regions were affected by the Humboldt current which kept these areas foggy, but dry; while the eastern rainforests received the highest rainfall than any other regions in Peru.

chavin_food — “The Chavin people ate deer and llama, as well as guinea pigs for religious ceremonies.”

The Chavin lived in a dry mountainous region. They were able to adapt to their harsh environment over the years. The Chavin carved the mountainous areas where they lived into terraces and turned these lands into farms. These terraces also protected the soil from erosion.

The Chavin people survived on hunting and herding, but the main source of their food was agriculture. Their main sources of carbohydrates were from maize and potatoes while quinoa was cultivated for protein and dietary fiber. These hardy crops survived the harsh highland climate, so the Chavin people grew them for many years. Archeologists also found that the Chavin people ate deer and llama, as well as guinea pigs for religious ceremonies.

References:
Spivey, Diane M. The Peppers, Cracklings, and Knots of Wool Cookbook: The Global Migration of African Cuisine. New York: State University of New York Press, 1999
Salomon, Frank, and Stuart B. Schwartz. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999

Posted on June 8, 2016June 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Jerusalem, City Wall Completed

Nehemiah stayed as the governor of Judah for twelve years which started from the 20th year of King Artaxerxes I’s reign to his 32nd year. He led the people of Jerusalem in the reconstruction of the city wall, but they were strongly opposed by the foreigners who lived near them. Despite severe opposition, the wall was finally completed around 400 BC where it is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart. Over the years, the men who opposed Nehemiah continued to accuse him of rebellion against the Persian ruler. The most dangerous scenario was when Sanballat and Geshem plotted to harm Nehemiah. They sent him a message to meet them at one of the villages in the plain of Ono.

After he had realized that this was a trap, Nehemiah refused to meet them. But despite years of intimidation and dangerous threats, the people continued to work. The wall of Jerusalem was finished on the 25th day of Elul (Nehemiah 6:15). The Levites, singers, and all the people of the city took part in the dedication of the wall.

This wall was expanded by Herod the Great and Agrippa I, but was destroyed during the First Jewish-Roman War in 70 AD.

References:
Curtis, Adrian, and Herbert G. May. Oxford Bible Atlas. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007
Picture By Printed in the “Standard Bible Story Readers” by. Lillie A. Faris 1925. Published by the Standard Publishing company. Verified via here and here that the copyright was not renewed in 1952 or 1953 and so has expired. – http://thebiblerevival.com/clipart47.htm, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8550331

Posted on June 7, 2016June 4, 2022 by Kat Cendana — 22 Comments

Where Were Sodom and Gomorrah Located?

Sodom and Gomorrah — two cities that became infamous for the greatness of the sins of the people that once lived there and the tragic destruction that followed. The search for the location of the doomed sister cities continues to fascinate many scholars, historians, and Bible readers. The story of these sister cities served as a cautionary tale (Jude 1:7) against sexual immorality, as well as other sins such as “pride, gluttony, and laziness” (Ezekiel 16:48-50).

Some clues that aid in the search: Sodom and Gomorrah formed the Pentapolis of the Cities of the Plain (Genesis 14:2) of the Jordan Valley which included Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar (Bela). It was there that Lot decided to settle with his family after a dispute between his herdsmen and Abraham’s over the land on which their herds and flocks grazed; meanwhile, Abraham remained and settled in the territory of Canaan

Sodom and Gomorrah were famous for the wickedness of its people as shown in Genesis 13:13 and by Genesis 19, it was doomed by God to be completely destroyed. Lot was warned about this destruction by the two angels he protected from the men of the city. He was told to take his family and find refuge in the mountains.

Another clue: Lot pleaded for the angels to spare a little village called Zoar so they could find shelter there. This was granted and according to Genesis 19:24-25, the Lord “rained down fire and burning sulfur from the sky on Sodom and Gomorrah. He utterly destroyed them, along with the other cities and villages of the plain, wiping out all the people and every bit of vegetation.” The destruction was so great that Abraham saw it as he stood in Mamre (modern Hebron), far off west of the Jordan Valley. Lot and his daughters left Zoar later and temporarily lived in a cave in the mountains.

Zoar: The Key to Sodom and Gomorrah

For creation geologist Dr. Steve Austin, Biblical archaeologist Dr. Bryant G. Wood, and other scholars, Zoar was the key to finding the doomed cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. To pinpoint Zoar (and possibly Sodom and Gomorrah), they first needed to locate the region where the cities were built. The search for Zoar took them to the southern region of the Dead Sea where the Jordan Valley is located, near the modern city of Safi in Jordan. They looked for the cave where Lot and his daughters supposedly lived in when they escaped Zoar and found the remains of an ancient church named the Sanctuary of St. Lot with a cave near it. It overlooked the modern town of Safi, which made it possible that the town once known as Zoar is now named as-Safi.

Zoar (Safi) is the only town that is still in existence after thousands of years since the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. Historical records show that it was involved in commercial trade as recently as the 10th century AD. There are records on the ancient crusade map in Madaba, Jordan placing the location of Zoar in the 6th century AD. According to

According to Isaiah and Jeremiah (15:5 and 48:34-35 respectively), Zoar was located in Moab. The Jewish historian Josephus stated that Zoar was located south of the Dead Sea. Zoar was also described by the Arab tribes that lived there as “As-Safiyah”. These point to the location of Safi as former Zoar making it was the perfect jump-off point for finding the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah.

Bab edh-Dhra and Numeira: Ruins of Sodom and Gomorrah?

The angels of the Lord gave Lot and his family enough time to escape the destruction. According to Dr. Steve Austin, they probably traveled for six hours to Zoar by foot. He and other Biblical scholars that support this theory retraced the steps of Lot and came to the conclusion that the ruins of Bab edh-Dhra and Numeira in Jordan are the possible candidates for the sites of ancient Sodom and Gomorrah. Safi could be reached within six hours from Bab edh-Dhra by foot, and it was one of the biggest sites in the area that was settled by the time of Abraham (Early Bronze Age). The destruction that happened at the site was perhaps visible from Mamre (modern Hebron) in Canaan, and its location was an excellent sister city site.

The remains of Bab edh-Dhra is now just a mound (tell) with a cemetery right beside it. Geologists discovered that Bab edh-Dhra is located near an enormous fault zone, and the site experienced massive changes in geology over the years. It was once a fortified city with a 21-ft wide defensive wall (now collapsed) and contained a temple of an unknown god. Wadi Numeira, the remains of an ancient city near the ruins of Bab edh-Dhar, is said to be the city of Gomorrah. Numeira, just like Bab edh-Dhra, had a collapsed fortification, border fault, and evidence of widespread destruction caused by fire (burn deposits). Pieces of charcoal (from burned timber, possibly house beams) were found when the sites were excavated and in Numeira itself. Two human skeletons who died from trauma (burns and collapse of a structure) were found buried on site.

Both places were destroyed during the Early Bronze Age by ignition and collapse of structures, consistent with the “fire and burning sulfur” destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. In addition, both sites were located near enormous border fault lines which contained a combination of combustible bitumen, petroleum, and natural gas. It is possible that what destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah was a super-earthquake that spewed these destructive materials forced up by earth’s movement.

Evidence Against This Being the Site of Sodom and Gomorrah

Most archaeologists place the destruction of the two proposed cities during Early Bronze Age III which puts them about 400 years before the Biblical dates for their destruction. So does this mean these aren’t the infamous Biblical cities?

Dr. Bryant Wood of the Biblical Archaeological Society writes “In reality, the archaeological date for the end of the EB III period cannot be determined with any degree of certainty. Dating for the Bronze Age in Palestine is dependent upon synchronisms with the known history of Egypt. To date, we have no such synchronisms for the EB III (Early Bronze Age III) period. To date, we have no such synchronisms for the EB III period. There are a few correlations for the previous EB II period, suggesting that it was approximately contemporary with the Archaic Period (First and Second Dynasties) in Egypt, ca. 3100–2700 BC“

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References:
Picture By Peter Paul Rubens – The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=158561

Wood, Bryant G. “The Discovery of the Sin Cities of Sodom and Gomorrah.” The Discovery of the Sin Cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. April 16, 2008. http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2008/04/16/The-Discovery-of-the-Sin-Cities-of-Sodom-and-Gomorrah.aspx#Article.

Austin, S. A. Sodom & Gomorrah Parts 1 & 2. Origins, produced by Cornerstone TeleVision Network

Posted on June 6, 2016 by Kat Cendana — 2 Comments

Olmec Civilization, Collapse of the

The Olmec people lived in the regions of Veracruz and Tabasco along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico between 1200 to 400 BC. The collapse of the Olmec civilization is recorded on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History at 300 BC. San Lorenzo was the first center of this civilization, but it was abandoned many years later for La Venta and finally, for Tres Zapotes.

The cause of the collapse of the Olmec civilization had not been determined, but there were several theories why the people and their culture disappeared. One of the reasons why this great Mesoamerican culture disappeared was the rise of the Maya cacao trade in 800 BC. This diverted the routes that brought the prized cacao into the Olmec-dominated area.

Olmec_decline — “Olmec tomb at La Venta Park”

Internal problems, such as rebellion of the people, or the overthrow of a ruler, and warfare with neighboring peoples were also possible reasons for their decline. Because of this, the monuments in Olmec centers in San Lorenzo and La Venta were defaced and buried. The buildings in these sites were also destroyed.

The region experienced big changes in the environment at the time of the collapse. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions caused rivers to shift. These movements deprived the people of water supplies they needed for their farms. The Central Valley of Mexico experienced many volcanic activities between 500 BC to 250 BC, and an Olmec citadel was also destroyed. The areas where the Olmecs lived were covered with lava flow after the eruption, so they fled the area and never returned.

References:
Fiedel, Stuart J. Prehistory of the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987
Bulliet, Richard W., Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Steven W. Hirsch, Lyman L. Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Wadsworth Publishing
Childress, David Hatcher. The Mystery of the Olmecs. Kempton, IL: Adventures Unlimited Press, 2007
Picture By JETOVAR – Flickr, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1724920

Posted on June 3, 2016August 22, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Maya, Earliest Known Stone Calendars Carved by the

The Maya civilization flourished in 250 to 950 AD (Classic Period) in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador. The date of the earliest known stone calendars that were created by them is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History starting in 400 BC. The Maya people built temples, markets, plazas, and palaces located in their great urban centers of Tikal, Chichen Itza, and Palenque. They used the Milpas system and grew corn, squash, beans, manioc, and chili peppers side by side in the same field. The Maya religion reflected their reliance on nature by their worship of gods such as Chaac (god of rain), Ah Mun (corn god), and Kinich Ahau (sun god).

The Olmec people (1200-400 BC) were the first to develop the concept of a calendar in Mesoamerica. This was improved by the Maya people. Some of the earliest Long Count calendar monuments were found in Olmec-Maya archeological sites in Guatemala and Mexico. While others were found in Mexican sites, such as Chiapa de Corzo, Tres Zapotes, and La Mojarra.

The Maya made three additional calendars: the Haab’, Tzolk’in, and Calendar Round. The Haab’ was a practical 19-month calendar with 365 days in one solar year, and it had 18 months of 20 days, plus a 5-day intercalary month. Each month was also symbolized with a unique glyph.

The second calendar is the Tzolk’in which was a 260-day sacred calendar created for ritual purposes. It had thirteen Maya numbers and twenty days represented with glyphs of animals, objects, and events. These numbers and days were moved against each other every day until a complete 260-day cycle had passed.

The combination of Haab’ and Tzolk’in calendars was the Calendar Round, which will not repeat until the end of a 52-year cycle. For events longer than 52 years, the Maya people used the Long Count Calendar. The oldest Maya calendar (9th century) was discovered in 2012 in the Xultun archeological site in Guatemala. It contained murals, hieroglyphics, and astronomical calculations. Another stone calendar was found in an altar in Tikal archeological site.

References:
http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/54-1/who-were-the-maya.pdf
http://www.authenticmaya.com/calendar.htm
Stark, Barbara L., and Philip J. Arnold. Olmec to Aztec: Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gulf Lowlands. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997
https://maya.nmai.si.edu/sites/default/files/resources/The Maya Calendar System.pdf
http://www.bu.edu/today/2012/bu-archaeologists-discover-oldest-maya-calendars/

Posted on June 2, 2016May 26, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Jerusalem, Commencement to Rebuild

An attempt to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem was made after Artaxerxes I of Persia became king (465-464 to 424-23 BC). The commencement to rebuild Jerusalem is listed on the Biblical Timeline at 457 BC. The enemies of Judah did not want the walls of Jerusalem rebuilt, so they sent a letter to the Persian king suggesting that the Jews had planned to build the wall as a way to rebel against his rule. Artaxerxes ordered the people to stop the reconstruction when the letter reached him (Ezra 4:2-23).

The walls were not rebuilt until the time of Nehemiah. He served at the court of Artaxerxes I as a cup-bearer. Nehemiah requested the king to send him to Judah so he could help rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. Luckily, this request was granted by the king. He went to Judah and encouraged the people to start the reconstruction of the city walls under his leadership. However, they had to deal with strong opposition from the Ammonites, Arabs, and Ashdodites who lived near them. The Jews were in fear for their lives after they were warned that they would be killed if they continued, but Nehemiah appointed guards to protect them.

The threat against them was so great that Nehemiah was forced to divide the men as workers and guards. They worked in shifts so that when some men worked in rebuilding the walls, others stood guard over them. They also defended themselves by carrying weapons whenever they worked (Nehemiah 1-4).

References:
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-i
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Jerusalem_Wall_(25267773063).jpg

Posted on June 1, 2016June 6, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mochica Culture (North Peru)

The Mochica or Moche was a pre-Inca and pre-Hispanic civilization which flourished in the northern coast of Peru in 100-800 AD. The Mochica culture in North Peru is recorded on the Bible Timeline with World History between 400 BC – 600 AD. They belonged to the Central Andean tradition which included Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, as well as some parts of Argentina and Chile. This tradition started in 4000 BC and ended with the Spanish conquest of South America. Its influence spread from the Huarmey Valley to the Piura Valley with Mochica Valley at its center. The Cerro Blanco Complex in the Mochica Valley was one of the most important sites for this culture.

Environment

The Peruvian coastal area where the Mochica people lived was affected by the Humboldt current which produces a foggy but dry weather. They were, however, able to carve irrigation canals to channel the water from the Andes. Because of this irrigation system, the Mochica people were able to cultivate corn, squash, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and beans. They also sailed the Pacific Ocean for fish and sea mammals for food.

The area where they lived was prone to earthquakes, droughts, and flooding. One of the greatest weather phenomena that affected the Mochica people was the El Niño, and they experienced it often with sometimes disastrous effects on their food and water supplies. The warm sea water brought by the El Niño killed off phytoplankton, a common food source for fish, birds, and sea mammals. Because of this, they needed to go somewhere colder to look for food. The fish the Mochica caught were also fewer than usual. The El Niño phenomenon also brought abnormally frequent floods which destroyed crops and houses, but it could also be a great event for farmers who needed water for their lands.

The coastal areas of Peru had the earliest Peruvian ceremonial sites built in this area. The Cupisnique and Chavin cultures were influential to the Mochica culture, especially in their pottery. The Mochica people lived alongside the Nazca and Recuay peoples. They were succeeded by the Wari and Chimu cultures.

Ceramics

One of the first people to study Mochica sites was German archeologist Max Uhle, who explored Cerro Blanco in the late 19th century, as well as made excavations in Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna. However, the person who made the greatest contribution in introducing the Mochica culture to the world was Rafael Larco Hoyle. Even though it was his father, Rafael Larco Herrera, who first acquired hundreds of Pre-Columbian ceramics, it was his son who created a museum that would safeguard the huge collection. He discovered and acquired thousands of different Peruvian culture ceramics including the Cupisnique, Lambayeque, Salinar, and others. His enduring legacy was his discovery of artifacts related to the Mochica culture. The collection can be seen in Larco Museum in Lima, Peru.

The finest Pre-Columbian ceramics with complicated patterns and colorful drawings of people, animals, mythological creatures, and gods can be found in the Larco collection. Important people such as priests and warriors were frequently drawn on these ceramics, often with realistic depictions. The shapes of the ceramics were sometimes simple (flared bowls, neck jars, dippers, cups), but other shapes were complicated (three-dimensional animals, stirrup bottles). Some ceramics were also shaped like Peruvian animals such as llamas, deer, foxes, felines, spiders, and reptiles. Mochica pottery was usually coated with red on cream or white but sometimes red on black.

Mochica Religion

The people worshiped a mysterious fanged god called Ai Apaec or El Decapitador. They would sacrifice human victims to it. The images of Ai Apaec holding a severed human head were painted on murals in Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna, and carved in Mochica metal arts found in houses and burials.

Priests and warriors were important people in Mochica religion. Both took part in the human sacrifice of their captives during times of war. These were often painted in ceramics and found in skeletal remains recovered from the area.

Mummies

One of the most famous mummies recovered from Peru was the Lord of Sipán in Huaca Rajada. He was buried with a copper scepter and elaborate headdress, as well as various ceramics and metal jewelry. With him were other individuals including warriors, young women, and animals. A child and a priest were also included to be with him in the afterlife.

Another important archeological find was the Lady of Huaca Cao Viejo, who was heavily tattooed and buried with many funeral goods, including gold sewing needles and weapons. The unusual number of weapons buried with her led to speculations that she was a ruler or someone who held a high position in the Mochica society.

Collapse

The droughts, migration of fish supply, and floods caused the decline of the Mochica civilization. The Chimu culture would later dominate the area left by the Mochica around 1200 to 1470 BC.

References:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=392038
Salomon, Frank, and Stuart B. Schwartz. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999
Benson, Elizabeth P. The Worlds of the Moche on the North Coast of Peru. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012
Bourget, Steve, and Kimberly L. Jones. The Art and Archaeology of the Moche: An Ancient Andean Society of the Peruvian North Coast. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008
http://www.museolarco.org/en/visit-the-museum/rafael-larco-hoyle/
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/moch/hd_moch.htm
http://www.world-archaeology.com/features/tombs-of-the-lords-of-sipan.htm
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/mummy-peru.html
Nunn, Patrick D. Climate, Environment and Society in the Pacific During the Last Millennium. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2007

Posted on May 31, 2016July 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Nazca Coastal Culture in Western South America

The Nazca (or Nasca) is the name of the archeological culture that flourished in the southern coast of Peru between 100 BC and 650 AD. The Nazca coastal culture in Western South America is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History between 400 BC – 1000 AD. It was named after the Rio Grande de Nasca and located between the Ica and Nasca valleys. The Nazcas were related to the earlier Paracas culture which played a significant role in the development of their society as seen in both cultures’ art and religion.

The weather in this coastal area was influenced by the Humboldt current which would bring fog but kept the area a dry sub-tropical desert. The Nazca people depended on agriculture, but the land was particularly prone to droughts, earthquakes, and flooding. They still managed to produce corn, beans, manioc, potatoes, sweet potatoes, peppers, and squash which became their staple foods. Cotton and wool from llamas and other highland animals were sources for textiles and were used for trade with other people. The Pacific Ocean was a good source of seals, fishes, and other seafood.

The Nazca people traded with other communities in Peru including the coastal Camaná province; grave goods identified as Nazca were found at cemeteries in the area. The use of wool from llamas and other highland animals were also present in Nazca sites. There were also feathers of rain forest birds that decorated the headdress of Nazca mummies.

Nazca_Lines_Hummingbird — Nazca geoglyph of a hummingbird

Their villages were clustered from the Cañete Valley to Acari Valley with Nazca at its center. These villages were led by chieftains who were united through their religion, but there is no evidence of an important ruler or a central government. The chieftains served as shamans as well as warriors. Their depictions can frequently be seen on colorful Nazca pottery. They led Nazca rituals and usually used hallucinogenic drugs that were common in Peruvian culture. These drugs were derived from the San Pedro cactus (mescaline) and Angel’s trumpet tree.

Religion played a big part in the lives of the Nazca people, especially when they lived in an area that was prone to the above listed natural disasters. They also believed in animatism. These supernatural forces were evident in their ceramic arts. These had colorful depictions of mythological creatures that were believed to control their food and water supplies. The prominent religious center of the Nazca people was located in the Cahuachi, where remnants of pyramid temples can be found. It first served as a pilgrimage and burial site until it was used as a mortuary and offering area.

The most enduring legacy of the Nazca culture was the geoglyphs in Pampa de San Jose. These mysterious glyphs of unknown purposes were drawn on the desert surface to reveal the lighter soil underneath. The drawings vary from simple lines to a complicated representation of animals including a pelican, monkey, killer whale, hummingbird, and more. Whether it was for astronomical purposes or to indicate past water sources, the reason for the existence of these glyphs is still a mystery.

References:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nazca_Lines_Hummingbird.jpg
http://people.umass.edu/proulx/online_pubs/Nasca_Overview_Zurich.pdf
King, Heidi, and Delgado Pérez Ma. Mercedes. Peruvian Featherworks: Art of the Precolumbian Era. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2012
Proulx, Donald A. Sourcebook of Nasca Ceramic Iconography: Reading a Culture Through Its Art. University of Iowa Press, 2006
http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/nazca-lines

Posted on May 30, 2016May 30, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Persia: Media Conquered

The nomadic Indo-European people known as Persians migrated into what is now modern Iran around 1000 BC. They settled in Persis in the southwestern portion of the area. Their tribe was called Parsua, and the only surviving evidence of their existence in Pre-Achaemenid Iran is in an inscription during the reign of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser II. As their population grew, their political power also increased. They reached the zenith of their power around 550 BC during the reign of Cyrus II (the Great). Which is where it is recorded on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History.

Media, on the other hand, was an established kingdom in northwest Iran. The kingdom was subjugated by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, but in 612 BC the Medians, along with the Babylonians, successfully rebelled against Assyrian rule. The fall of Nineveh marked the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Babylonians, as well as the Medes, became the leading powers in the region. Babylon was led by Nabopolassar and Media was ruled by Cyaxares. This, according to Herodotus, cemented an alliance through the union of their children. Cyaxares’ daughter Amytis married Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar. Media and Persia would seal an alliance later on with the marriage between Mandane, the daughter of Astyages, and vassal prince Cambyses I of Anshan, who was the father of Cyrus the Great.

“Painting of King Astyages sending Harpagus to kill young Cyrus.”

The birth of Cyrus was shrouded in mystery and seemed more like a fantastic legend than a reliable account. According to Herodotus, Astyages had a dream and had his magicians interpret the dream. The interpretation given was that his daughter’s child would overthrow him from his throne. Fearing this, he decided to have the child killed. Astyages supposedly sent his court retainer Harpagus to kill his grandson, but Harpagus entrusted the killing of the child to a cowherd.

The cowherd, however, withdrew after he was convinced by his wife to trick the king. This was done by presenting their stillborn son to Harpagus and raising Cyrus instead. The infant was saved, and when Cyrus grew up, he met and charmed Astyages in his court in Media. Astyages punished Harpagus by killing his son and served the flesh to the father to eat without him knowing. When Harpagus discovered that he ate his own son’s flesh, he secretly plotted revenge against the Median king.

Cyrus eventually returned to Cambyses in Anshan. Harpagus quietly allied himself with Cyrus to exact his revenge for the murder of his son. He sent word to Cyrus and encouraged him to rebel against his own grandfather, reminding him of what Astyages did to him when he was an infant. When Astyages heard of the rebellion, he assembled the Median army and summoned Harpagus to lead them. The Persians won when Harpagus and many of his own men defected to the Persian side. Upon learning of their defection, Astyages armed the remaining men of Media and led them into battle where he was defeated by his own grandson. The kingdom of Media then submitted to Cyrus II and became part of the Persian empire.

References:
http://www.britannica.com/biography/Cyrus-II
Herodotus, and J. H. Sleeman. Herodotus. Bristol: Bristol Classical, 2002
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandane
Picture By Jean-Charles Nicaise Perrin – Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15865487