Kat Cendana – Page 34 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on August 8, 2016August 24, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Matthew, Apostle

Matthew means “gift of God” in Hebrew, and he was also called Levi in a few passages in the New Testament. We know that Matthew was one of the writers of the Synoptic Gospels that chronicled much of Jesus’ ministry but just like the other disciples, his name vanished quickly from most Biblical records after Jesus’ death. But thanks to his skills as a writer, the modern Christian can read about Jesus’ life, deeds, and death through the Gospel of Matthew with his unique perspective.

As Jesus’ Disciple

The Apostle Matthew was the son of a man named Alphaeus and he lived in the coastal village of Capernaum. There were no records of his early life, but he introduced himself as a tax collector (publican) in his own book during the time of Herod Antipas (Matthew 9:9; 10:3). Since he worked as a tax collector, it was possible that Matthew was one of the wealthiest disciples of Jesus. He was also mentioned in Mark 3:18 and Luke 6:15. He was with the other disciples after Jesus’ resurrection in Acts 1:13.

St._Matthew — “The Inspiration of Saint Matthew by Caravaggio”

“The Inspiration of Saint Matthew by Caravaggio”

One of the most remarkable stories about Matthew was his willingness to drop everything and follow the Lord after Jesus called him for his ministry. In addition, Matthew invited Jesus over to his house as a guest of honor in a banquet along with the other tax collectors and other sinners. The Pharisees met Matthew’s feast and Jesus’ choice to join the sinners with indignation to which the Lord replied that, “Healthy people don’t need a doctor—sick people do. Now go and learn the meaning of this Scripture: ‘I want you to show mercy, not offer sacrifices.’ For I have come to call not those who think they are righteous, but those who know they are sinners.” (Matthew 9:9-13)

After Jesus’ Death and Resurrection

Beyond the Book of Acts, there were no reliable sources for Matthew’s life after Jesus’ death and resurrection. Much of the events that were associated with Matthew post-Jesus came from tradition or records that could not be verified. Eusebius of Caesarea, in his book Church History, mentioned that he “first preached to the Hebrews” and then prepared to preach to “other people.” Clement of Alexandria also mentioned Matthew briefly in his books Paedagogus and Stromata. According to tradition, Matthew either died a natural death or that he traveled to Ethiopia where he was killed by King Hertacus. His feast day is celebrated every September 21st.

References:
Picture By Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio – http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/caravaggio/matthew.jpg, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=136502
Clement of Alexandria. “Paedagogus.” Documenta Catholica Omnia. Accessed July 27, 2016. http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/03d/0150-0207,_Clemens_Alexandrinus,_Paedagogus_[Schaff],_EN.pdf.
Clement of Alexandria. “THE STROMATA, OR MISCELLANIES.” Orthodox EBooks. Accessed July 27, 2016. http://www.orthodoxebooks.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/The Stromata – Clement of Alexandria.pdf.
Eusebius of Caesarea. “Church History.” Documenta Catholica Omnia. Accessed July 27, 2016. http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/03d/0265-0339,_Eusebius_Caesariensis,_Church_History,_EN.pdf.

Posted on August 5, 2016August 5, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Hopewell Culture in Upper Mississippi Region

The Hopewell Culture flourished during the first millennium AD which is where it is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History. It was located in the Upper Mississippi region of Ohio. Its influence reached as far as some parts of Wisconsin, Mississippi, Nebraska, Minnesota, Indiana, and Virginia. But its center was found in the Ohio, Scioto, and Miami Valleys of Ohio with ceremonial mounds dotting the landscape where the people once lived.

The term ‘Hopewell’ does not refer to any particular Native American tribe that lived in the region; instead, it refers to a culture built around the people’s religious and ceremonial cult that made its funerary practices one of its distinct marks. “Hopewell” was also the last name of the family who owned the farm where some of the earthworks were discovered back in the late 1800s.

The Hopewell people lived in small villages around the major waterways and rivers that snake through the Upper Mississippi region. Their homes were simple rectangles with wattle and daub walls and finished with thatched roofs. The Hopewell people did not use the massive mounds found in the area as settlements, but as ceremonial places for the deceased. The simple mounds were built in various geometric shapes (square, circle, rectangle, and octagon). Rectangular or conical mounds were specifically used for cremation and burial. The Hopewell people made a distinction between the common and more important people of their community through the cremation and burial of the leaders and others who were on top of the social ladder. More elaborate burials were reserved for hunters which showed their importance to the Hopewell culture.

The Hopewell people were hunter-gatherers, and they took advantage of the surrounding waterways as another food source. Later, they transitioned to the cultivation of squash, sunflower, maygrass, marsh elder, and other native plants. Their trade networks spanned the Great Lakes area, the Carolinas, and even as far as the Gulf of Mexico. Trade materials recovered from the Hopewell site included copper, mica, and obsidian.

For unknown reasons, the sites were abandoned around 400 AD, which followed the disappearance of the Hopewell culture.

References:
Picture By Heironymous Rowe at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6841525
http://www.britannica.com/topic/Hopewell-culture
http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Hopewell_Culture?rec=1283

Posted on August 4, 2016August 4, 2016 by Kat Cendana — 3 Comments

Saul’s Conversion

Zealous, brutal, and loyal to his religious heritage—this was how the book of Acts introduced the man called Saul of Tarsus who quietly approved of and watched the death of Christianity’s first martyr, Stephen. The death of Stephen and the persecution that followed was a blow to the community of believers and it pushed many others to leave Jerusalem for the surrounding towns. Saul, meanwhile, started the search for the members of this new movement with the intent of imprisoning them. The conversion of Saul is recorded on the Bible Timeline Poster around 34 AD.

Christianity continued to spread despite the threats of imprisonment and death the believers were subjected to. The Way (as it was then called) had reached beyond Jerusalem into Samaria, the Palestinian cities of Gaza and Ascalon, as well as the coastal city of Caesarea (Acts 8). By the time Saul intensified his efforts in the persecution, the word about Jesus Christ had spread to the Syrian city of Damascus. He asked the high priest for an authorization letter to the synagogue in Damascus so he could bring back the new converts to Jerusalem as prisoners.

Sauls_conversion — ” Paul the apostle was originally known as Saul of Tarsus”

” Paul the apostle was originally known as Saul of Tarsus”

As he neared the city of Damascus, a blinding light from heaven flashed around him and Saul fell to the ground. A voice called out his name and asked why he had persecuted him, which Saul answered with another question, “Who are you, Lord?” To his amazement, it was Jesus himself who called out to Saul and surprisingly, he was told to continue to Damascus where he would be told what to do next. He rose as a blind man after this encounter. He had to be led to the city by his companions. For three days, Saul did not eat nor drink, and he languished in the city—blind and helpless.

A man who lived in another part of Damascus was commanded by the Lord to go to Judas’ house on Straight Street, look for a blind man called Saul, and place his hands on the afflicted to restore his sight. The man was Ananias, and he was understandably hesitant; Saul of Tarsus was known as a man who was unflinching in his goal of stamping out the new followers of Christ. Ananias knew this. So why would Jesus send him now to his own “executioner”?

But the Lord told Ananias to go just the same as Saul would be the instrument with which the name of Jesus would be known by the “Gentiles and their kings and before the people of Israel.” (Acts 9:15) Ananias obeyed the Lord and went to the house on Straight Street to minister to a former enemy. Saul’s eyesight was restored after “something like scales fell from his eyes.” Now that he was whole again, Saul chose to be baptized and regained his strength for several days before he set off to the synagogue—not on a quest to purge the followers of Christ, but to preach about Jesus of Nazareth.

References:
Picture By Bartolomeo Montagna – EwEzl9zb0cohpg at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23980761

Posted on August 3, 2016August 4, 2016 by Kat Cendana — 1 Comment

Stephen’s Lapidation

Stephen, whose name means “crown or glory,” was described by Luke in Acts 6:8 as “a man full of God’s grace and power, did great wonders and miraculous signs among the people.” Unfortunately, this powerful personality and faithfulness resulted in his death and turned him into the first Christian martyr. According to the Bible Timeline Chart, Stephen lived shortly after the time of Christ.

The book of Acts did not offer Stephen’s origins. He came to the scene as one of the men appointed by the apostles to be in charge of the church’s food program for the poor. (Acts 6:7) His wisdom was so superior to others that he earned the anger of the members of the “Synagogue of the Freedmen” (Jews who were from parts of Libya, Egypt, and Asia Minor). They falsely accused him of blasphemy. Stephen was seized and brought in front of the Sanhedrin to face the accusations that were reinforced by false witnesses (Acts 6:8-15).

Saint_Stephen — “Stoning of Saint Stephen by Paolo Uccello”

“Stoning of Saint Stephen by Paolo Uccello”

There were two accusations hurled against him by his enemies: first, that he spread the word that Jesus would destroy the temple in Jerusalem and second, that Jesus would change the customs laid down during the time of Moses. When asked by the high priest if the charges brought against him were true, Stephen delivered an enduring speech in front of the Sanhedrin (assembly). He showed his knowledge of Israel’s history from the time of Abraham in Mesopotamia to the time of Solomon and denounced the people for their persecution of the prophets.

This condemnation made Stephen’s enemies more furious and they covered their ears after he said that he saw “heaven open and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God.” The people dragged him out of the city and stoned him to death, but Stephen was able to ask the Lord to receive his spirit before he died. He also forgave the mob for this brutal and undeserved punishment for false accusations. Meanwhile, a man called Saul watched on with approval for Stephen’s death and planned to hound the believers of this new movement.

References:
Picture By Paolo Uccello – Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15465652
http://biblehub.com/greek/4735.htm

Posted on August 2, 2016August 4, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Monte Alban in Oaxaca, Mexico (100-200 AD)

The Zapotec civilization rose in the Oaxaca Valley at roughly the same time as Teotihuacan and the Maya civilizations near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Small agricultural settlements were built in the Valley of Oaxaca during the Formative period, and these villages evolved into complex societies that revolved around the Zapotec religion and politics. The people eventually moved from the valley floor to the Monte Alban ridge which offered a spectacular and defensive view of the plains below. This started around 100 AD according to the Biblical Timeline with World History.

Monte_Alban_Maya — “The west side platform at the Monte Alban pyramid complex.”

“The west side platform at the Monte Alban pyramid complex.”

Monte Alban became the capital of the Zapotec civilization sometime between 150 BC to 150 AD, and it became the dominant force in the Oaxacan highlands. At its peak, it was one of the largest cities in Mesoamerica with a population of more than 10,000. The Zapotecs chiseled away at the limestone top of Monte Alban to create a leveled surface and started the large-scale construction of the main plaza, ball court, public buildings, and temples. The common people built their houses on the terraced hillside close to the ceremonial centers, while the members of the elite lived in compounds located north of Monte Alban.

This period also produced some of Zapotecs’ best works of art recently recovered from Monte Alban, including the jade bat god, the Scribe of Cuilapan, and various pottery figures from tombs.

References:
Picture By Nsaum75 at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12440330
Chavalas, Mark W., and Mark S. Aldenderfer. Great Events from History: The Ancient World, Prehistory-476 C.E. Pasadena, CA: Salem Press, 2004
http://inside.mines.edu/fs_home/jsneed/courses/LISS.380-83/LISS.381/resources/sites/monte_alban/maII/index.shtml
Cremin, Aedeen. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Richmond Hill, Ont.: Firefly Books, 2007

Posted on August 1, 2016February 18, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mogollon Culture of Southwestern US

The Mogollon Culture flourished in the valleys, mountains, and plateaus of central Arizona, south and central New Mexico, the western portion of Texas, and into the borders of the Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua. This occurred during the 1st century AD according to the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History. The distinctive culture was named after the Mogollon Mountains of New Mexico, which in turn was named after the former governor of New Mexico, Don Juan Ignacio Flores Mogollon, who governed in 1712 to 1715.

It was one of the major cultures in the southwestern part of the US, after the ancestral Pueblo and Hohokam cultures. There are several branches of the Mogollon culture which include the Mimbres, Reserve, Jornada, Point of Pines, Forestdale, and the San Simon. They developed from the ancient Cochise and were divided into Early Pithouse, Late Pithouse, and Mogollon Pueblo periods by the leading Mogollon archaeologist Emil Haury.

These ancient people initially were hunter-gatherers, but they switched to farming and the sedentary lifestyle after the arrival of maize (corn), squash, and beans. The Mogollon culture was known for its extensive irrigation system in the area with the use of ditches that they dug and directed to water their fields.

During the Early Pithouse Period, the people built circular or sometimes shapeless pithouses in the highlands which were clustered in small groups in a village. Their ceramics were formed through the coil-and-scrape (or pinch) method and were initially used without paint. These ceramics became more colorful in the Late Pithouse Period; red paint on brown background came first, followed by white-on-red, and then black-on-white pigments. They also shifted their pithouses from the upland area to terraces well beyond the river floodplains. The pithouses now took on a rectangular shape and villages became larger with houses clustered around a larger ceremonial pit called kiva.

The pithouses and the fields were moved down to the valleys of the region during the Mogollon Pueblo Period, and the dwellings resembled the ones constructed by the ancestral Pueblo people. Some time later, the people preferred to carve out cliff dwelling as shown by the Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument. The ceramics during this period were painted with a distinct black-on-white pigment which later evolved into many colors.

References:
Diehl, Michael William., Steven A. LeBlanc, Roger Anyon, John W. Arthur, and Paul E. Minnis. Early Pithouse Villages of the Mimbres Valley and Beyond: The McAnally and Thompson Sites in Their Cultural and Ecological Contexts. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 2001
http://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/pdf/mogollon_fact_sheet.pdf
Picture By not specified – http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/byways/photos/58728, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=731376

Posted on July 29, 2016August 26, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

El Mirador (Guatemala): Early Maya City

Hidden deep within the lush rain forest of the department of Petén in Guatemala lies a once-magnificent city called El Mirador. The name means “The Lookout” in Spanish because of the center’s tall pyramids. According to the Bible Timeline Poster with World History, El Mirador began before the 1st century AD. It was located in the Maya heartland in the Mirador Basin right next to the Mexico-Guatemala border. Because of the thick rain forest that covers the city and the remoteness of the site, it was not until the last decade that El Mirador was fully explored, excavated, and studied. Although it was first discovered in 1926.

Cradle of Maya Civilization

The area was first occupied in the Late Preclassic Period and settlements were present well into the Late Classic Period, with a population that reached up to 100,000 during its height. During the peak of the city’s power, some of the largest, tallest, and oldest pyramids were built in El Mirador by the rulers from the Snake (Kan) Dynasty. It became a center for ritual and pilgrimage. Linked to it were surrounding cities by several limestone causeways called sacbe’ob or sacbe. The longest causeway was found between El Mirador and Tintal, which stretched up to 40 km and is still visible today via satellite.

El Mirador was the center for trade in the region as artifacts made of jade, obsidian, granite, quartzite, and ceramics from other areas were found in the city. The jade came from the central Guatemalan region of Rio Motagua, obsidian from the San Martin Jilotepeque and El Chayal regions, shells from the coasts of the Caribbean and the Pacific, and ceramics from the highlands. El Mirador was also a source of a large number of Codex-style ceramics which were named because of their similarities with Maya codices (books) of mythology and history, particularly the Popol Vuh.

The people of El Mirador constructed some of the tallest and most spectacular stepped pyramids in the world including the one called La Danta (Tapir). It stands up to 236 feet high with a base that is larger than the Central Acropolis of Tikal; the pyramid is such a massive structure that only the top portion has been recently revealed through excavation. Other structures in El Mirador include the triadic pyramid El Tigre, Los Monos pyramid, large temples, ball courts, and plazas.

Decline

El Mirador’s position in the middle of the rain forest enabled the city to have a better water supply than other Maya cities in the region. (A pool with carved depictions of the Maya creation myth Popol Vuh was recently excavated in the site.) It was located near a long cliff which made it easy to defend in case of invasion. But it was abandoned suddenly in the Late Preclassic Period because of a scarcity of the food sources and massive deforestation done by the Maya which resulted in poor soil. Obsidian spear points were recovered on top of the El Tigre pyramid, so warfare possibly caused the abrupt disappearance of the Maya from El Mirador.

References:
Picture By Maurice Marcellin – Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3588270
Brown, Chip. “El Mirador, the Lost City of the Maya.” Smithsonian. May 2011. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/el-mirador-the-lost-city-of-the-maya-1741461/?no-ist
http://www.authenticmaya.com/mirador1.htm

Posted on July 28, 2016October 25, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Tiahuanaco (Tiwanaku) in Bolivia 200-375 AD, First Period of

Many great civilizations were established near bodies of water, and the Tiwanaku Empire (also spelled Tiahuanaco in Spanish) was one of them. It stood 20 kilometers from the shore of the Lake Titicaca near the border of Peru, The Incas themselves point to Tiwanaku as their sacred place of origin. The area was settled as early as 1500 BC, but the Tiwanaku culture flourished only in 200 AD and reached its zenith in 375 AD where it is recorded on the Biblical Timeline with World History. Its influence gradually spread from the altiplano (high plateau) of Bolivia to the coast of Peru down to the northern parts of Chile and Argentina.

The city of Tiwanaku was initially known as an uninhabited religious or ceremonial center in the altiplano because it was built in a harsh environment that could not possibly support life. It was only in the 1950s when it was considered as an empire that grew from within the high plateau of Bolivia and then spread to surrounding areas because of politics, trade networks, and conflicts. Tiwanaku was initially composed of small political entities with shifting alliances and ruled by their own independent chieftains. Core territories stretched from Tiwanaku Valley to the Catari Valley in the north and the Desaguadero River region in the south.

At its peak, Tiwanaku was home to between 30,000 to 60,000 people who lived in the residential areas that surrounded the elite’s massive pyramids and palaces. The city was dominated by the Akapana Pyramid, which was shaped like a half of a chakana or Andean cross and rose up to 16.5 meters high. A walled platform called the Kalasasaya was built directly opposite the Akapana for religious or political rituals while less than a kilometer southwest of the Kalasasaya stands the remains of the Pumapunku (“gate of the puma” in Aymara). It was once the entrance to a great architectural complex made of stone and adobe. It possibly served as a religious center which attracted pilgrims from the Tiwanaku sphere of influence.

The people of Tiwanaku lived in a desert-polar climate in the Lake Titicaca Basin with temperatures that change drastically during the day and at night. Although the water supply from Lake Titicaca was abundant, the temperature in this arid but high altitude could go up to 20 °C with a low 0f 0°C at night, making it unsuitable for agriculture. The Tiwanaku people adjusted to their environment and sculpted the landscape to make raised fields. This technique improved soil condition and drainage, as well as protected the crops from frost and heat, which allowed them to thrive in an unforgiving environment. This ancient technique was recently rediscovered and was put to use by the people who now live in this region to cultivate their crops.

References:
Picture By Alexson Scheppa Peisino(AlexSP) – Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1917310
Janusek, John Wayne. Ancient Tiwanaku. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008
http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/tiahuanaco/tiwanaku-religion.pdf
Stanish, Charles. Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003
Erickson, Clark L. “Raised Field Agriculture in the Lake Titicaca Basin: Putting Ancient Agriculture Back to Work.” Expedition Magazine 30, no. 3 (1988) http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~cerickso/articles/Exped.pdf

Posted on July 27, 2016August 22, 2016 by Kat Cendana — 2 Comments

Bartholomew the Apostle

Bartholomew was one of Jesus‘ disciples who, unlike the strong-willed Peter and skeptical Thomas, pretty much stayed in the background. Not much is known about Bartholomew’s life before and during Jesus’ ministry, and most of what we can glean about his life after the Lord’s death were based on the accounts of other writers. Passages that mention Bartholomew are too few (Matthew 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; and Acts 1:13), but he was also associated with the disciple called Nathanael mentioned only in the Gospel of John (Bartholomew was never mentioned in the book of John).

If Bartholomew and Nathanael were one and the same, then this disciple was born in Cana in the region of Galilee. Nathanael scoffed after Philip told him about Jesus of Nazareth for the first time, but changed his mind after Jesus demonstrated his power to him(John 1:43-51). The name “Bartholomew” was mentioned once again after the death and resurrection of Jesus in Acts 1:13 and what we know about his life post-resurrection can only be patched together from tradition.

Saint_Bartholemew — “The Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew”

Missionary to India and Armenia

According to Eusebius of Caesarea in the Ecclesiastical History, Bartholomew traveled to India and preached about Jesus to the people who lived in the northeast portion of the realm. He left a copy of the Gospel of Matthew in India and went on with Jude the Apostle to the Roman province of Armenia. The men gained a lot of converts for Christ in the region and even convinced the Armenian King Polymius to turn to Christianity. According to Movses of Khorenatsi in the History of Armenia, Bartholomew preached in the Ararat region but was later martyred at a place called Albacus around 68 AD by the order of King Sanatruces of Adiabene (Arbela). Before his death by crucifixion or decapitation, it was said that Bartholomew was also flayed alive. His feast day is held every August 24.

References:
Picture By José de Ribera – http://www.nga.gov/fcgi-bin/tinfo_f?object=72037 http://admirersofbaroqueart.blogspot.com/2007_04_01_archive.html, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17344420
Eusebius, and G. A. Williamson. The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1967.
Movses of Khorenatsi “Full Text of “The History of the Armenian People, from the Remotest times to the Present Day”” Accessed July 19, 2016. https://archive.org/stream/historyofarmenia00morg/historyofarmenia00morg_djvu.txt.
“The Book of Saints : A Dictionary of Servants of God Canonized by the Catholic Church :.” The Book of Saints : A Dictionary of Servants of God Canonized by the Catholic Church :. Accessed July 19, 2016. https://archive.org/stream/bookofsaintsdict00stau#page/39/mode/1up.

Posted on July 26, 2016June 10, 2023 by Kat Cendana — 15 Comments

The Biblical Years of Silence

At least four hundred years passed between the prophecies of Malachi (430-420 BC) and Matthew’s written account of Jesus’ life (50-60 AD). Those years were known as the Biblical Years of Silence, due to the lack of historical accounts in the Bible that describe the events during this significant gap in time. The name itself can be misleading as those years were anything but silent.

So, what happened during the four-hundred-year silence between Malachi and Matthew (or more specifically, James who wrote his letter in 44-49 AD)? It is not surprising that Judea and the Jews experienced some peaceful years during this four-hundred-year period, but many years in between were wracked with internal strife and invasions. Let’s take a look at Israel’s colorful history during the Biblical years of silence.

The Achaemenid Period (450-330 BC)

Bible_years_of_silence — Most do not realize that those years of silence were anything but silent.

Most do not realize that those years of silence were anything but silent.

The modern Bible’s Old Testament ended with the prophecies of Malachi, which were written between 430 to 420 BC. Malachi lived during the twilight years of Persian Achaemenid dynasty’s domination of Judea and other Near East territories. Many years before his birth, the Persians had freed the Jews from exile, allowed them to return to their homeland, and gave them permission to practice Judaism freely (a sharp contrast to the restrained religious policies of the Assyrians and Babylonians). The Second Temple was later rebuilt under Zerubbabel (with the approval of the Persian king) being finished in 516 BC. This completed the work begun by both Nehemiah and Ezra. In 333 BC, Alexander the Great defeated Darius III of Persia and ended the Achaemenid domination in the Near East.

Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Period (330-166 BC)

The Greco-Macedonian army under Alexander the Great spent the years between 334 and 323 BC conquering the Near East and even ventured as far as the northwestern frontier of India. Alexander the Great ruled his empire from 330 to 323 BC but his vast territory disintegrated immediately after his death. Various generals, friends, and family members fought for domination in his former territories, but only four leading diadochi (bodyguards) remained in power: Seleucus took Mesopotamia as well as Central Asia, Attalus ruled Anatolia, Antigonus dominated Macedon, and Ptolemy ruled Egypt.

Judea under the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties was generally peaceful and stable. The era was also marked with increased Hellenistic influence in Palestine, from art, architecture, politics, and culture. Many Jews adopted Greek names and learned to speak and write Koine Greek. It was also the time when Ptolemy of Egypt commissioned seventy translators to translate the Old Testament from Hebrew to Greek which resulted in the Septuagint.

The peace in Judea only disintegrated during the reign of the Seleucid dynasty king Antiochus IV (214 to 164 BC) who persecuted the Jews and forbade them from practicing Judaism. Antiochus forced the Jews to worship Greek gods and ordered the destruction of the Scriptures—an act which greatly angered the Jews. Some Jews welcomed the change, but other rigidly adhered to Judaism as a response to the repression.

The Hasmonean Period (166-63 BC)

As the repression of Judaism continued a Jew named Mattathias (along with his sons) rose up and led the rebellion against Antiochus in 167 BC. His son, Judas Maccabeus, also led the Jewish revolt between in 167 BC until his death in a battle against the Greeks in 160 BC. This era saw the rise of the Hasmonean Dynasty starting from Judas Maccabeus and ending with Antigonus II Mattathias (the Hasmonean) who led a fierce rebellion against the Romans.

The Roman Period

The Roman general Pompey invaded Jerusalem in 63 BC which led to the capture of the city and the end of the Hasmonean Dynasty. Roman rule over Palestine began in the same year through Hyrcanus II, but Parthia was also a dominant force in the Near East at that time. Parthians besieged Jerusalem in 40 BC to get rid of the Roman-appointed governor Herod, but he had fled some time earlier to Rome and only the unlucky high priest Hyrcanus II remained as ruler of the city (Hyrcanus was mutilated by the Parthians which made him unfit to hold the position of the high priest). The Roman general Marc Antony brought Herod back to Jerusalem, drove the Parthians out, and installed Herod (an Idumean) as secular ruler of the Roman province of Judea.

In year 19 BC, Herod improved the Second Temple first built by Zerubbabel during the Achaemenid period. He was Judea’s ruler when Jesus was born between 6 and 4 BC and was responsible for ordering the Massacre of the Innocents in Bethlehem shortly after Jesus’ birth.

References:
Bauer, Susan Wise. The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome. New York: W.W. Norton, 2007.
Josephus, Flavius, and William Whiston. The Antiquities of the Jews. London: Routledge.