Amy – Page 17 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on May 10, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Parthians Conquered in 116 AD

The Parthian and Roman Empire had a long-term conflict that resulted in a series of battles that started in 66 BC until 217 AD where it is listed on the Biblical Timeline with World History. Otherwise known as the Roman – Parthian Wars, these battles took over 700 years and led to massive destruction of property between these two powerful empires.

Early Beginnings of the War

The earliest recorded incursions that existed between Parthia and Rome was in the Battle of Carrhae, which occurred in 53 BC. Moreover, the Parthians showed support to Brutus and Cassius during the Civil War of the Roman Liberators in the First Century BC. The end of the Roman Civil War, however, only led to the strengthening of the Roman Army throughout Western Asia. Thus, this increased the supremacy of Rome over other nations that were once a threat to its victory.

Parthians_Conquered _in116 AD — Parthian prisoner on chains,

Emperor Trajan of Rome began formulating plans to conquer Parthia in 113 AD. Eventually, he succeeded in gaining power over Ctesiphon, the capital of Parthia. Afterwards, he appointed Parthamaspates as the client ruler, yet this policy was reversed by Trajan’s successor, Hadrian.

During the Second Century BC, another series of wars existed between Parthia and Rome. Throughout these battles, Rome gained an advantage over Parthia, which gave Trajan much optimism about ruling over this land once and for all. Soon, the emperor believed that the time is right to begin the annexation of Armenia and invade Parthia.

The Invasion of Armenia

With a new strategy set, Trajan was able to conquer Armenia and transformed it into one of Rome’s province in 114 AD. Also, he succeeded in killing Parthamasiris, who was appointed by King Osroes of Parthia as the ruler of Armenia. A year after, Rome invaded the northern part of Mesopotamia and annexed it as a part of the Roman Empire. Prior to heading towards the Persian Gulf, the Ctesiphon succumbed to the Romans, as well.

It was in 115 AD when various revolts broke out in various nations including northern Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine. To further put the Roman army’s abilities to the test, a massive Jewish revolt also erupted in the Roman territory. Because of these consecutive revolts, Trajan was unable to take over Hatra, and this prevented him from gaining power over Parthia. As a consequence, the Parthian Army threatened major Roman territories that caused significant challenges to Trajan.

Conquer of Parthia

Upon conquering Mesopotamia, Trajan had only a few concerns as Osroes was preoccupied with another civil war with Vologases III. Hence, Trajan decided to settle in Antioch from 115 to 116, but he continued his campaign and goal of defeating Parthia. As he proceeded to the Euphrates, he conquered Dura-Europos, Characene, and Susa.

Parthia’s great leader, Sanatruces II, gathered his army to fight the Romans in the eastern part of Parthia. However, he was betrayed and murdered by Parthamaspates, his cousin. During the remaining months of 116 AD, Trajan declared himself as Parthia’s new king, which signaled his victorious attempts of ruling over the land.

In 117 AD, Babylonians threatened the Roman garrisons with a series of revolts. This has led to Trajan’s withdrawal from Mesopotamia, yet he attempted to fight back in 118 AD to completely gain power over Parthia. Unfortunately, the mighty emperor died in 117 AD even before he was able to declare another war.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romans_in_Persia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian_Empire
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ParthianInChains.jpg

Posted on May 9, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — 1 Comment

Romania and Transylvania Subjected to Rome in 101 AD

Romania has become one of the provinces of the Roman Empire, including Transylvania, Oltenia and the Banat. It was in 101 AD where it is listed on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History when the Romans took control of these territories, and they now form the regions of Romania. At the onset, the main purpose of the Romans was to establish Dacia as its imperial province. With much success, the land was transformed as what was intended for throughout the Romans’ invasion.

battle scene between the Roman and Dacian armies, Trajan’s Column, Rome

The Romans’ Campaigns to Invade Dacia

Emperor Trajan began the campaign to conquer the Dacian kingdom, which was then ruled by Decebalus. Unfortunately, the Roman Empire failed to gain total control of the old Dacia, and this kingdom was led by the Free Dacians. It remained as such even after some parts of Dacia was subjected to Rome.

As early as the First Century BC, King Burebista has established Dacia as a strong and powerful state. His main goal for completing this was to protect the kingdom from the Romans’ invasion. When King Decebal of Dacia took over the state in 87 to 106 AD, he failed to stop the Romans from conquering the kingdom in 101 AD.

Roman Empire in Dacia

The Romans’ primary intention for invading Dacia was to obtain a greater means of revenue from the kingdom’s rich and thriving gold mine. The land was also abundant in other minerals such as iron, which is used in creating the finest swords. With Rome’s fear of being attacked by Dacia because of the kingdom’s great resources to make powerful weapons, Emperor Trajan began perceiving the state as a threat to Rome’s safety and progress.

Thus, Trajan decided to plan for an attack to invade Dacia. Indeed, he made was able to succeed in his campaigns as his strong army burnt every village and nearly everything in sight as they conquered the kingdom. In 102 AD, King Decebalus was defeated by the mighty Emperor Trajan, which signaled Dacia’s surrender and the conflict between the two nations.

Improvements in Dacia

The Romans proved to Dacia its superior skills by building the world’s largest bridge. It was this same bridge that projected Rome’s abilities, engineering skills and power not only to Dacia, but also to the world. In addition to this fine architecture that Trajan ordered to be built in Dacia, the Emperor helped the kingdom obtain security from potential invaders such as the nomads and barbarians. Dacia received funds from Trajan, and the money was used to re-establish its military forces.

However, Decebalus yearned for vengeance, and he silently plotted ways to have his chance to defeat Trajan. In 105 AD, another invasion was made by Trajan, although this did not prove to be victorious for him, unlike the first battle. Decebalus got what he wanted, and the Romans suffered from terrible casualties that forced them to succumb to a truce.

Still, the battle did not come to an end, and Decebalus continued his campaigns to regain his power and control of the land. In 106 AD, Trajan won the battle and completely surrounded the Capitol until he gained a victory. Instead of being captured and accepting defeat, Decebalus decided to commit suicide.

Eventually, Dacia thrived with the support of the Roman Empire. The battle between Dacia and Rome finally ended, and it resulted in peace and victory for these two nations.

References:
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/romania/history#ixzz2zGMue2EZ
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Dacia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:032_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_XXXII.jpg

Posted on May 8, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Scotland Ruled by Rome in 81 AD

It was in 71 AD (where it is listed on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History) when the Roman Army began to arrive in Scotland and established a powerful empire that lasted until the year 213. According to historians, this period in Scotland’s history was complex in nature. Although the Roman Empire had a significant impact on Scotland’s history during the invasion, there were some reports gathered that Rome lacked complete control of the land and its people.

Roman Empire Began Its Invasion of Scotland

Based on historical studies, the Roman Army remained in Scotland for 40 years, yet they lacked total jurisdiction of the land during that time. It was during this complex period that there was an insufficient archeological evidence to prove Rome’s full control and influence in the Scottish culture.

When the Romans arrived at the Britannia province, they named the land that was found on its northern part as Caledonia. They introduced their culture to the Scottish people, yet the original settlers in that part of Scotland did not entirely adopt the Romans’ way of life.

Scotland_Ruled_by_Rome_in_81_AD — Gnaeus Julius Agricola

Gnaeus Julius Agricola

One of the most renowned military leaders in Rome was Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who set foot in Britain in 78 AD, as he was to serve as the land’s new governor. After remaining in Britain for two years, he successfully erected a fort with the help of his army at Trimontium. Archeologists also discovered quite many solid evidence of the Romans’ influence in the land of Roman pottery, coins, armor, and remains from the army were unearthed. Historians have reported that Agricola and his armies have reached River Taus or River Tay, so they could construct forts in the said location.

Battle of Mons Graupius

Under the leadership of Calgacus, Agricola, and the Roman Army headed off to attack the Caledonians, which is known to history as the Battle of Mons Graupius. Along with his fleet, Agricola prepared for the battle with only as much as 20,000 men while the Caledonian Army was made up of 30,000 warriors. Evidently, the Romans were outnumbered, yet they still attempted to advance to their opponents in this battle.

After a long and dreadful battle, the Romans were badly impacted and suffered from a tremendous loss. It was also noted that about two-thirds of the Caledonian warriors managed to escape to the Scottish Highlands and marshes. Their main purpose was to stop Agricola and his men from ruling over the island.

Historians gave an estimate of the casualties of the war. According to research, at least 10,000 Caledonian soldiers died while there were only 360 Roman soldiers that were found to be dead. This historical battle was believed to have taken place in the Grampian Mounth, which faced the North Sea.

Meanwhile, Agricola wasn’t merely contented with his army’s victorious attempts at the battle. He also gained control of several hostages from natives and tribes in Caledonia. There were also studies that pointed out how he erected another fort near Inverness, which was the result of his arrival to Britain’s northern coast.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola#The_invasion_of_Caledonia_.28Scotland.29
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/168802/Domitian

Posted on May 7, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Huns and Tartars

Westward Drift of Huns and Tartars around 100 A.D.

The Huns and Tartars were two distinct tribal groups from the Great Steppes of Asia that was situated between modern day Russia and China. These two tribal groups had been living in the open plains of the Great Steppes of Asia for thousands of years. It was around 100 A.D. (where they are listed on the Bible Timeline) when they started to appear along the borders of Eastern Europe. Starting with the Caspian Sea and extending to the Ural Mountains eastward to the Pacific Ocean was the area that the Tartars occupied.

In fact, the Tartars were spread out all throughout central and northern Asia and were also known as the Tatars. The Huns had their origins in Asia as well. They were situated in the northern countries that lie above China. They too had migrated over time westward into Europe.

Societal Organization

The Huns and the Tartars were not powerful or organized tribes, and many of them were gathered into a loose confederation of tribal groups. They didn’t have settled societies, and they lived a nomadic life that was rooted in agriculture. Tribal chiefs ruled both the Huns and Tartars and the people were organized by clans under their chiefs. They never united into a single people but remained independent. The tribal groups that were organized within the Huns and the Tartars fought battles or waged wars according to their own agendas. They also migrated throughout Asia in different patterns as well.

Migration

About 100 A.D. different tribal groups throughout northwestern Asia constantly roamed the lands of the Asia Steppes. They included not only the Huns and the Tartars but other tribal groups such as the Mongols, the Turks, and Russian Cossacks. Nearly all of the tribes within these groups had slowly migrated westward across Asia for thousands of years. Many people within these tribes intermingled, and some of them lost their original identities to other tribes within the area.

Most of them would remain in a particular location for many years before they packed up their belongings and moved on to a new region. Once again, they lived off of the land but they didn’t set up permanent societies. Practices such as farming were not widespread among the tribes though they grew food. Most of them were hunters and gatherers. None of these tribal groups was prominent at the time, and they were not in a position to pose any major threat to any empire kingdom of their day. Tribal groups occupied much of Northern and Eastern Europe and some of these groups mixed in with the encroaching Huns and Tartars.

Romans Interpretations of the Huns and Tartars

The Romans were the primary power in Europe during the 1st century A.D. They were the ones who first wrote about the Tartars in their histories. The Romans knew of these people only in passing. They never went to war with the Tartars. They either encountered a few Tartars they traded with along the Rhine River, or they heard rumors about them from various traders or merchants who encountered this group of people further back east. Tartar means mounted carrier or messengers (Latin or French) and apparently some of the early Tartars must have been employed in this capacity by the various tribes that they encountered. This group must have been used for relaying messages between tribes and kingdoms that were situated along the border of Europe and Asia. The Romans only vaguely reported that they were in the area but were not concerned with them as a people.

References:
http://www.oldandsold.com/articles32n/outline-history-39.shtml
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartary
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatars

Posted on May 6, 2014September 4, 2015 by Amy — Leave a comment

Goths on the Black Sea and the Danube

The Goths were groups of Germanic ethnicity, which are made up of the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths. These people were instrumental in the decline of the Roman Empire as they gave rise to the Medieval period in Europe. According to history, the Goths migrated from Scandza and settled in Gothiscandza, which was situated in the lower portion of the Vistula region. In fact, archaeologists have noted evidence of the truth behind the migration of Goths. It was also noted that in the 3rd century, they crossed the Black Sea or Lower Danube and destroyed several areas along the way including the Balkan Peninsula, Anatolia, Byzantium, Sparta and Athens. A century later, the Goths invaded Dacia and dominated a massive area that spanned towards the Danube and the Black Sea.

The Goths Rose Into Power

The Goths were among the most powerful groups of people that succeeded in finding their way into the Classical World. In fact, this tribe was able to break out of north-central Europe during the latter part of the second century. In half a century after leaving their homeland, the Goth arrived at the Black Sea, which was at the northern portion of the Danube River. It was not long after that they reached the Danube frontier and conquered the Roman Empire after raiding and destroying the coast of Bulgaria.

In 250 AD, Kniva, the fearless Gothic commander, obtained three different armies and set them on the field. While one of these armies was defeated by the Dacians, the other two successfully reached the Danube. On the sea, these tribes were also the primary forces that initiated sea raids, which impacted negatively a large part of towns in the Black Sea. Although they were able to raid various places including Asia Minor and Greece, their ships were destroyed by strong winds during the tribe’s return to their homeland.

The Goths During the 4th Century

In the earlier parts of the 4th century, the Goths were divided into two groups – the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths. The Ostrogoths settled in the north of the Black Sea, which was in the Ukraine while the Visigoths remained along the Danube River.

These groups took part in various battles, yet they remained victorious after the strong invasion of the Huns in Europe. When the Gothic Army succeeded in the battle in 372, the Roman Empire decided to give the Goths a land that was situated between the Danube and the Balkan Range. However, this was not enough to satisfy the Goths who wanted to claim more areas as their homeland.

Alaric, a powerful Gothic leader, decided to violate the treaty made with the Romans as he penetrated the southern part of the Balkan Range. He also entered Rome when the Emperor failed to give him a title or some recognition for his past services. Although he caused minimal chaos to Rome, he attempted to go to Sicily and step foot into North Africa’s rich grain fields. However, he failed with his attempts when a massive storm destroyed his fleet, and until he died before putting his plans into actions. Soon after, the Visigoths remained in Southern Gaul before settling into the Iberian Peninsula.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths
https://faculty.unlv.edu/jmstitt/Eng480/Germanic/Goths/Goths.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grande_Ludovisi_Altemps_Inv8574.jpg

Posted on May 5, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Decius Fights the Goths

Decius was one of the Roman Emperors who was a native of the Illyricum province located in the Danube. He was highly skilled and qualified to become a political leader, unlike Maximinus or Philip the Arab, who were his predecessors who had little understanding on how to rule the people. In fact, Decius gained experience in politics when he became a senator and served as a consul before he assumed the throne.Arab, who were his predecessors who had little understanding on how to rule the people. In fact, Decius gained experience in politics when he became a senator and served as a consul before he assumed the throne.

In addition, Decius was appointed as the governor of Germania and Moesia, and he also became Hispania Tarraconensis’ governor during 235 to 238 AD. where he is located on the Bible Timeline Chart. This brilliant politician was noted as Rome’s urban prefect when Emperor Philip the Arab reigned in the empire.

Battles Against the Goths

During the reign of Decius, the barbarians remained as the most persistent opponent of the Roman Empire. These groups of people were known for their daring attempts to overthrow the empire, and their plagues against Rome came during that time when the entire kingdom was experiencing an economic crisis.

Although Decius briefly reigned the Roman Empire, he participated in one of the most significant operations where he fought against the Goths. It was at this period in time when the Goths were able to cross the Danube and began their devastating plans of raiding various districts of Thrace and Moesia. However, the Goths were defeated by the Emperor while they were in the act of causing chaos to Nicopolis, an area on the Danube. As a result, the Goths moved towards the Balkans as they plotted their next attempt to fight the Romans.

For their second attempt, they succeeded in sacking the Roman camp and defeated the troops in the modern-day Stara Zagora. Eventually, the Goths attacked Philippopolis that soon succumbed to their power. While this greatly discouraged Decius as he fled from the battle, along with some of his remaining army, he was more focused on rising back and regaining power over the Goths. He decided to devise a new scheme that would put the Goths into their place and end the battles, which have been causing much chaos and loss to the Roman Empire.

With a brilliant plan in mind, Decius reorganized his army and aimed to defeat the Goths once and for all. The Battle of Abrittus served as the “final engagement”, in which the Gothic Army fought against the Roman Empire under the rule of Decius in 251 AD. It took place in Ludogorie, which was a region located in the northeastern part of Bulgaria. It was in this swampy ground that Herennius Etruscus, son of Decius, died as he was shot by an arrow at the early part of the battle. Although Decius tried his best to keep up his army’s hope and spirit, he soon met his untimely death when he was also killed during that battle.

Decius might have died from that fight, yet his courage and determination to uphold Rome’s peace and order, as well as his great sense of leadership, have made him one of the empire’s greatest rulers of all time.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decius
http://www.academia.edu/444907/On_the_Chronology_of_the_Gothic_Invasions_under_Philippus_and_Decius_AD_248-251
http://www.luc.edu/roman-emperors/decius.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Traianus_Decius_(Mary_Harrsch).jpg

Posted on May 4, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Rome Abandons Dacia, 270 AD –

In Dacia 106 AD, Dacia became a territory of the Roman Empire, and it included Transylvania’s eastern and south-eastern areas, as well as Oltenia and the Banat. When the Roman Empire claimed Dacia as one of its provinces, it was established to become its imperial province. According to historical research, about 650,000 to over a million people lived in Dacia before it was abandoned by Rome in 270 AD (where it is located on the Bible Timeline).

Threats to Dacia’s Security

A period in history called the 3rd Century Crises occurred between 235 and 270 AD, which was also the last phase of the Roman Empire’s hold in Dacia. This stage was a chaotic period in the imperial province as it was frequently under attack by the barbarians. In addition to the security threats by these strong forces, internal anarchy existed in Dacia, which contributed to its devastating downfall. Much of the challenges that Dacia faced came from the East, beginning with the Carps, which was a group of people that settled on the Moldavia. Eventually, the German Goths became a major threat to Dacia’s security, peace and order. Fortunately, Emperor Philip the Arabian was able to prevent the Carps from invading the province during the battle that occurred in 245 to 247. However, the years after that victorious fight, Dacia was left to encounter another difficult problem.

270_AD-Rome_Abandons_Dacia — Map of the Roman Empire during 116, the province Dacia highlighted.

Map of the Roman Empire during 116, the province Dacia highlighted.

Dacia’s Worsening Condition

By 260 AD, the incessant attacks of the barbarians caused serious threats to Dacia’s progress. To make things even more difficult, the province experienced problems in terms of monetary circulation as there were fewer penetrations of new coins from the Empire’s capital.

It was also during this period when Emperor Gallienus decided to relocate a number of Dacian legions to Pannonia, specifically in Poetovio. His purpose was to use these soldiers as the upper echelon troops in the Roman’s exercise army.

In 270 AD, the Roman Empire was restored when the state of Zenobia and Empire of the Gauls were reclaimed. All of these accomplishments were credited to the efforts of Aurelian, who was a notable Roman general. Since his main goal was to unify and form a stronger Roman state, he exhausted all of his efforts and made use of all his military forces. Thus, he had no choice left but to abandon Dacia, which was then situated on Danube’s northern shore. It was also in this province that there were significant garrisons by the Roman Empire.

In 271 AD, Aurelian assembled his remaining troops in Dacia, and they were intended to support the defensive line in the Danube. He also formed a new territory that is now a portion of Serbia, and this province was given the name “Dacia”, which was similar to the other province that was abandoned by the Romans.

Although Dacia was abandoned by Rome, that did not end the Roman Empire’s relationship with its other territories from Lower Danube’s northern shore. In fact, the empire still managed a strong military presence to the Danube, along with other areas in that territory including Barbosi, Sucidava, Drobeta and Dierna.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Dacia#Last_decades_of_Dacia_Traiana_.28235.E2.80.93271.2F275.29
http://rohistory.ici.ro/eng03.ht
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dacia_SPQR.png

Posted on May 2, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Alemanni and Franks

Alemanni and Franks on the Rhine in 250 AD

In history, the period of 235 to 285 AD was considered as a time of severe crisis for the Roman Empire. It was during this time when various forces threatened peace and order in the empire, as more powerful groups rose into power. Among these enemies that had a serious impact to the Romans were the Alemanni and Franks that remained at the Rhine that is where they are located on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History.

Threats of the Franks and Alemanni

These raids were often successful as the Roman army was unable to stop these forces from causing harm to the people and their properties. Moreover, the Roman soldiers came quite late to prevent these groups from endangering numerous areas, particularly the Roman-Germanic provinces. Since a large number of Rome’s cities lacked a strong fortress or walls to protect them from these raids, a vast portion of these regions was damaged and deserted after the attack of the Franks and Alemanni.

In 256, the Franks successfully invaded Germania Inferior as they destroyed most garrisons situated along the Rhine. In addition, the group conquered Trier, although Emperor Gallienus was ale to regain its hold on Trier as Germania Superior and Gallia Belgica succumbed to his power. Postumus, the governor whom he appointed to reign in Germania Inferior, aimed to overthrow the Franks. Unfortunately, Gallienus was forced to halt his campaign because his father, who was also his co-emperor situated in the East, was defeated and imprisoned by the Sassanid Persians. Hence, he decided to withdraw his troops from the Rhine, and this paved the way for the Franks and Alemanni to reach the Rhine. This resulted to the brutal destruction of numerous Roman forts and civil settlements located at the Rhine and the Danube.

The Frankish and Alemanni army also gained success in invading Trier and Cologne as several forts that once stood along the Rhine were completely destroyed. A significant portion of France, Belgium and the Netherlands was also devastated and set in flames.

Alemanni_and_Franks — Area settled by the Alemanni, and sites of Roman-Alemannic battles, 3rd to 6th centuries

Area settled by the Alemanni, and sites of Roman-Alemannic battles, 3rd to 6th centuries

For a number of years, anarchy was the prevailing atmosphere in these parts of the world until the great Emperor Probus was able to put an end to these devastating actions by the Franks and Alemanni. He also decided to take back the Roman Empire’s border to the Danube and Rhine Rivers. Probus also gave up the Agri Decumates and Limes, and he turned the Franks and Alemanni into Roman allies. They were tasked to remain loyal to the Roman Empire and to show their support by defending it when necessary.

References:
http://www.rhinedragon.de/romans_germanics3.html https://amazingbibletimeline.com/timeline_online/250ad/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_Wars
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alemanni

Posted on May 1, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

Transubstantiation During Mass

(History of the term and early beliefs)

Based on the doctrines of the Catholic, transubstantiation refers to the transformation of the bread and wine present in the Eucharist into Christ’s body and blood. This is listed on the Biblical Timeline starting 250 AD. Thus, bread and wine no longer serve as a figure used in this sacrament as these have already obtained a different form. It is what the Catholic Church claims – that the bread becomes the body of Christ and wine is turned into his blood. While all of these changes happen, the external appearances of these figures remain the same. Moreover, the transformation is beyond anyone’s understanding, which maintains its mystery and sanctity.

Transubstantiation_During_Mass — Christ with the Eucharist, Vicente Juan Masip, 16th century.

Christ with the Eucharist, Vicente Juan Masip, 16th century.

History of Transubstantiation

Archbishop Hildebert de Lavardin of Tours first used the word, “transubstantiation”, in the 11th century. He pertained to it as the best description and explanation of the transformation that occurred during the Eucharist, when the bread and wine are changed into Christ’s very own body and blood. However, it was not until the 12th century that this term was used extensively. It was on November 11, 1215, during the 4th Council of the Lateran, that the formal explanation of this mystery in the sacrament of the Eucharist was made. According to the Council, these changes are made possible because of God’s power.

However, this doctrine of the transubstantiation was criticized and viewed as pseudophilosophy during the rise of Protestant Reformation. Those who doubted this doctrine claimed that it was merely adopted into the Christian teaching to show support of Martin Luther’s philosophy of the sacramental union.

13th Session of the Council of Trent

In 1551, the Council of Trent pertained to transubstantiation as the conversion of the entire components of the bread into Christ’s body and the wine into his blood. As the conversion occurs, the physical characteristics of the wine and bread stay the same. Also, the Council gave its approval to use the term as the official means of expressing the teaching of the Catholic Church regarding this transformation that exist during the sacrament of the Eucharist.

Based on history, it was in the West where the Aristotelian philosophy remained quite strong. In fact, the reality and truth behind this change during the Eucharist also prevailed in various Churches of the East, as well as the Eastern Orthodox Church. With that in mind, this belief has spread wide in other ancient Churches and eliminated people’s doubts about this mystery.

The Catholic Church states that transubstantiation focuses more on the truth that something is changed, instead of the explanation about how that change takes place. This doctrine promotes the truth that the species or appearances are real, and that the Eucharist celebrates the actual presence of Christ.

The act of touching every portion of the bread and the a single drop of the wine allows one to have a close encounter with Jesus Christ. Furthermore, Christ’s presence in these figures is whole, and the breaking of the bread performed during the sacrament does not literally divide every aspect that makes up Christ.

This truth was best explained by Thomas Aquinas in his written work called Summa Theologica. According to him, Christ’s body is ever-present in the sacrament of the Eucharist. However, this presence is not similar as in its literal meaning since it cannot be perceived by the senses or one’s imagination. On the other hand, Christ’s presence is only perceptible to a person’s intellect and faith.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transubstantiation
http://www.webtruth.org/articles/theological-issues-23/transubstantiation-49.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg

Posted on April 30, 2014October 4, 2017 by Amy — Leave a comment

China, Golden Age of Chang-An in

Chang-An, which is presently known as Xi’an, refers to the capital of ten dynasties in Ancient China. It was during the Neolithic Era that some people dwelled in this ancient capital, which also resulted to the establishment of the Yangshao Culture in Banpo. Moreover, the great ruler of the Qin Dynasty named Qin Shi Huang decided to construct a grand mausoleum that was protected by the Terracotta Army, which could still be found at present.

Information about the Chang-An

It was about 3 kilometers of the present-day Xi’an where the Han capital was historically found. According to historians, the capital served as China’s seat of culture, economy, and politics. Aside from being the center of trade and manufacturing, Chang-An also had a large population that supported its political strength. In fact, there were about 246,000 individuals residing in this area in 2 AD where it is listed on the Biblical Timeline. Most of the people who lived in Chang-An were classified as scholars who were supported financially by aristocrats and wealthy families, so they could sustain their education. Civil servants also resided in this city to protect and serve its people.

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Golden_Age_of_Chang-An_in_China — A gilt-silver jar with a pattern of dancing horses found from a 1970 excavation in Xi’an.

A gilt-silver jar with a pattern of dancing horses found from a 1970 excavation in Xi’an.

Improvements in Chang-An

The great Emperor Liu Bang aimed to build a strong capital that is directly at the sun’s center, which is the current location of Luoyang. The site that Liu Bang was pertaining to was also the location of Changzhou, which was pertained as a holy place. Because the site was believed to be a holy and magical place, many people believed that it will become a strong and powerful dynasty to last for years. Thus, it was the kind of image that Han tried to emulate and project to the people.

According to history, Liu Bang decided to relocate a number of military aristocracy clans to this city. He had two intentions for doing so, which was to maintain the closeness of all his rivals to the emperor and to encourage them to defend this capital from the neighboring cities including Xiongnu. He decided to actualize his decision largely due to the guidance from his political adviser, Liu Jing.

Thus, three prefectures were set up to divide the city prior to the construction of various structures in the capital. When Chang-An was first founded, there were only 146,000 inhabitants in the city, but it soon grew as the place progressed.

When Emperor Wu ruled the capital, Zhang Qian, a scholarly diplomat was relocated into Central Asia. Ever since that period, the city served as the people’s gateway to Europe from Asia. It also became the departure point of Silk Road. When the Western Han period ended, the government of Eastern Han remained in Luoyang to make it its new capital. However, the court was eventually relocated to Chang-An, back to its original location, in 190 AD. This event was due to the orders of the Prime Minister Dong Zhuo, yet the capital was placed back to Luoyang after his death. During this era, several dynasties in the world considered Chang-An as the site of strong governance and power that reigned supreme throughout China.

References:
http://totallyhistory.com/changan
http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/silk.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang’an