Kat Cendana – Page 30 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on September 30, 2016April 26, 2022 by Kat Cendana — 6 Comments

Simon the Zealot, Apostle

The apostle named Simon the Zealot was mentioned only four times in the Bible, and the Synoptic Gospels (the books of Matthew, Mark, and Luke) named him as one of the Twelve (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18; and Luke 6:15). Readers find him again in the book of Acts (1:13) after the death of Jesus and his ascension to heaven where Simon and his fellow apostles gathered together to elect a replacement for Judas Iscariot.

Simon_Zealot — “St. Simon, by Peter Paul Rubens “

Simon received no more than four mentions in the Bible, but the mystery of the identity of this apostle deepened with his epithet or nickname: the Zealot. In some versions of the Bible, Matthew 10:4 and Mark 3:18 (NRSV) both mentioned him as “the Cananaean,” while Luke tagged him as “the Zealot” (the Book of John totally left him out). The word “zealot” came from the Greek word zelotes and according to the historian Josephus, it also translates to the word qanna’ in Hebrew and qan’ana in Aramaic. Why he was nicknamed as “the Zealot” is still being debated. Biblical scholars never really reached an agreement about this.

Perhaps he was involved at some point in his life with the Zealots, a group of nationalistic Jews (sometimes bordered on fanatical) who actively sought independence from Roman rule. They—along with the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Idumeans—actively participated in the Roman-Jewish War of the 1st century. It was unclear whether Simon participated as a fighter for them or that he was simply a religious enthusiast.

According to tradition, Simon the Zealot traveled to Egypt and evangelized to the inhabitants of an unknown region of the Roman province. He later accompanied the Apostle Jude to Persia where he died and became a martyr. While some sources mentioned that he died at Edessa in Upper Mesopotamia (present-day Sanliurfa, Turkey). In another tradition, he was crucified May 10th 61 AD by the Roman Catus Decianus, at Caistor, modern-day Lincolnshire, Britain. By this account it was his second mission to Britain. The Catholics celebrate his feast day every 28th of October.

References:
Picture By Peter Paul Rubens – Museo del Prado, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14822135
Douglas, J. D. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Pub., 1974.
Morris, Steven Donald. Unraveling the Family History of Jesus A History Of The Extended Family Of Jesus From 100 Bc Through Ad 100 And The Influence They Had On Him, On The Formation Of Christianity, And On The H. West Bow Pr, 2016.
“St. Simon the Zealot – Saints & Angels – Catholic Online.” Catholic Online. Accessed August 30, 2016. http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=241.

Posted on September 29, 2016September 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — 1 Comment

Tiwanaku Civilization in Bolivia

The Bolivian city of Tiwanaku, considered by the Inca as the sacred place of their origin, was also home to a great civilization that flourished between AD 200 and 900. Located on the southern shores of Lake Titicaca in the modern Department of La Paz, the city was a famous pilgrimage site for the region. And was later the seat of a socially and politically influential Andean empire. The civilization peaked between 500 and 600 AD where it is recorded on the Bible Timeline with World History. Most of the magnificent structures were built, including the Akapana, Pumapunku, Kalasasaya, and Semi-Subterranean Temple during that time. What remained of the monumental architecture in modern times, however, was only a shadow of their former glory.

Tiwanaku Politics and Society

As was the case of great cities all over the world, Tiwanaku started out as a simple farming village without a hierarchy among its inhabitants. As years passed and as population increased, Tiwanaku society became more complex with rulers and warriors elevated to a higher status. While farmers and merchants remained in the lower half of the hierarchy. The houses of the elite, as well as the ceremonial centers, were built on the lake and surrounded by a moat. These were oriented to the nearby mountains and various celestial events that appeared in the sky. It was also a pilgrimage site which drew the people from distant Cochabamba and Moquegua regions who travelled to dedicate sacrifices and celebrate feasts. The interaction was not a one-way street, however, as the Tiwanaku-style artifacts were found in some parts of Peru and as far as Argentina—evidence of Tiwanaku’s far-reaching political and economic influence in the region.

Priests were on top of the Tiwanaku hierarchy, and they led the worship of different deities in which the sun god, Viracocha, was the head. This particular god was also worshipped by the Inca people (who rose to prominence thousands of years later, after the decline of Tiwanaku). They considered Lake Titicaca as the place of origin for the creator god Viracocha.

Survival in the Altiplano

The production of staple food in the ancient times was a challenge for the Tiwanaku people as the environment on the Andean Plateau was usually arid yet cold. The Tiwanaku managed to grow hardy crops such as quinoa, corn, potatoes, and sweet potatoes for sustenance. Survival proved to be more difficult during the onset of the El Niño phenomenon which resulted either in intense rains or droughts. They developed raised field agriculture (also known as suka kollus) to adapt to this harsh environment. Crops were planted in rows of raised fields that reached up to three feet in height to protect the plants from heat and frost. Fish were caught from the lake and placed in the ditches beside the rows.

References:
Picture By Arthur Posnansky – http://bilddatenbank.khm.at/viewArtefact?id=253874, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24862061
Woods, Michael, and Mary B. Woods. Seven Wonders of Ancient Central and South America. Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books, 2009.
GRID-Arendal. Climate Impacts of El Niño Phenomenon in Latin America and the Caribbean. Accessed June 29, 2016. http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/climate-impacts-of-el-nio-phenomenon-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean_921c.

Posted on September 28, 2016September 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mounds Built as Temple Bases, Flat-Topped

During the ancient times, enormous mounds of earth once dotted the landscape of the United States’ Eastern coast and Midwest. Many of the mysterious mounds were eventually destroyed to give way to farms and other developments, but they continue to fascinate even when the mounds were reduced in number and in size. These mounds are recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History around 725 AD.

These massive earthworks were constructed by the ancient North Americans of different cultures (Poverty Point, Troyville, Coles Creek, Plaquemine, and Mississippian cultures), and construction likely started as far early as the Archaic Period and reached its peak during the Woodland Period. They piled soil, shells, rocks, and other debris on top of each layer to build these mounds. Some of which were constructed in Kolomoki and Ocmulgee in Southwest Georgia, Pinson in Tennessee, Cahokia in Illinois, and Toltec in Arkansas.

Flat-topped_Mounds — “A diagram showing the various components of Mississippian culture ceremonial substructure platform mounds”

“A diagram showing the various components of Mississippian culture ceremonial substructure platform mounds”

Additional mounds were erected over the years in different areas and soon, the Eastern and Midwest landscapes were dominated by these enormous earthworks. They were primarily used and reserved as bases for temples or houses of priests/rulers (especially flat-topped ones). The common people who built them did not live on these imposing structures; instead, they lived in nearby settlements and visited the mounds only during religious ceremonies and other rituals.

From time to time, the structures on the flat-topped mounds were burned or destroyed to make way for bigger ones with the old buildings buried inside. The construction and maintenance of the mounds continued up to the 18th century when the last of the mound builders were driven off their lands by violence, famine or decimated by diseases (influenza and smallpox) brought on by the massive influx of European immigrants.

References:
Picture By Herb Roe, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17127682
“Indian Mounds – Encyclopedia of Arkansas.” Indian Mounds – Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Accessed June 25, 2016. http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=573.
McManamon, Francis P., Linda S. Cordell, Kent G. Lightfoot, and George R. Milner. Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2009.
United States. National Park Service. “Text Only Version — National Register of Historic Places Indian Mounds of Mississippi Travel Itinerary.” National Parks Service. Accessed June 25, 2016. https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/textonly.htm.

Posted on September 27, 2016September 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — 2 Comments

Pakal Dies at the Age of 80, The Emperor

Between the years 1945 and 1952, a Mexican archaeologist named Alberto Ruz Lhuillier worked on a series of excavations in the ancient Maya city of Palenque. In 1948, he came across a stone that he thought led to another chamber inside the Temple of the Inscriptions. He decided to pull the stone slab out of the way and dug his way through the debris. In 1952, his gamble paid off when he hit an archaeological jackpot—he had found the sarcophagus of a Maya nobleman. The large burial chamber, limestone sarcophagus with elaborate carvings, and the jade jewelry buried with the nobleman indicated his position in the Maya hierarchy. His identity remained a puzzle until the inscriptions were deciphered in the 1970s. The man with the magnificent jade mask buried inside an elaborate sarcophagus was K’inich Janaab’ Pakal, the greatest ruler of the Maya kingdom of Palenque. He is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History in 683 AD.

Emperor K’inich Janaab’ Pakal

One of Pakal’s most distinguished ancestors was Lady Yohl Ik’nal (one of the few female rulers recorded in Maya history) who descended from Palenque’s first ruler, King K’uk Balam I. She was followed by Ajen Yohl Mat and later, the Lady Sak K’uk’ who was also the mother of the emperor K’inich Janaab’ Pakal (k’inich alludes to the Maya sun god whole pakal means “shield”). Pakal was born during the reign of Lady Yohl Ik’nal, a time when Palenque experienced various upheavals under the dominance of the city of Calakmul.

As Pakal was still too young to inherit the throne, Lady Sak K’uk became his co-regent and ruled on her son’s behalf until he reached the age of 12. He was inaugurated on 615 AD and reigned for 67 long years (an unusual feat for a Maya ruler) until his death at the age of 80. His accession as king was written on the elaborate carving on the Oval Tablet from the Palace, but the first thirty years of his reign were surprisingly not recorded. According to epigrapher Nikolai Grube, Maya rulers waited until their rule reached stability until they commissioned commemorative monuments and inscriptions. Perhaps the first half of Pakal’s reign were turbulent, which explained why there were no records of these years.

Palenque became one of the most powerful Maya lowland kingdoms thanks to Pakal. The years of his reign were considered as the city’s golden age. Magnificent buildings were constructed, including some parts of the stunning royal palace and his mortuary shrine, and the Temple of Inscriptions. In 675 AD and several years before his death, Pakal commissioned the construction of his mausoleum, the Temple of the Inscriptions, and remodelled the nearby Temple of the Skull. The Temple of the Inscriptions was improved and finished by his son, Kan B’alam II, who succeeded his father to the throne of Palenque. Pakal was buried with luxurious grave goods including a jade mosaic face mask, pectoral plaque, mouth ornament, ear flares, rings, and bracelets—a testament to the Maya king’s greatness and Palenque’s wealth.

References:
Picture By User:Havelbaude – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1656965
Cremin, Aedeen, ed. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2007.
Tiesler, Vera, and Andrea Cucina. Janaab’ Pakal of Palenque: Reconstructing the Life and Death of a Maya Ruler. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2006.

Posted on September 26, 2016October 21, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Tikal Becomes the First Great City of Maya

The city of Tikal came a long way from its humble beginnings as a small farming settlement deep in the El Peten forest of Guatemala to one of the Maya people’s first great city by the Early Classic Period (at the end of 500 AD which is where it is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History). From a simple community, it evolved into a large complex society by the first century AD and had a ruling dynasty established at this time. By 150 AD, El Mirador was abandoned, and the rulers of the city of Tikal took advantage of the power vacuum to dominate the lowland region. The rulers later launched military campaigns into other Maya cities in the Peten region which include Uaxacton, Rio Azul, and Naranjo.

TikaL_Conquers — “Tikal (Guatemala), temple 1”

Conquest was not the only way the rulers of Tikal dominated other cities. They also made alliances through royal marriage, as well as long-distance trade networks that reached as far as the cities of Central Mexico. By 378 AD, the great Central Mexican city of Teotihuacan reinforced Tikal’s dominance in the region with military and economic assistance. Traces of its influence could be seen in the Maya city’s architecture (talud-tablero style) and iconography (Maya warlord Siyaj K’ak in full Teotihuacan battle regalia of the feathered serpent), but its influence over the Maya city declined in 550 AD.

Tikal’s was considered a great city at its height and most of its former grandeur can still be seen today. The Tikal landscape was dotted with pyramid temples, acropoleis, palaces, and plazas. The construction of these magnificent buildings was temporarily stopped when the cities of Caracol and Calakmul dominated the region. Tikal rose again after King Jasaw Chan K’awil defeated the then-powerful city of Calakmul in 695 AD.

References:
Picture By Raymond Ostertag – Self-photographed, CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1428216
Cremin, Aedeen. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2007.
Taube, Karl A. “The Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the Cult of Sacred War at Teotihuacan.” Latin American Studies. Accessed June 24, 2016. http://latinamericanstudies.org/teotihuacan/Temple-Quetzalcoatl.pdf.

Posted on September 23, 2016October 20, 2016 by Kat Cendana — 14 Comments

Jude Thaddeus, Apostle

Unlike the apostles Peter and John, the Apostle Jude was one of Jesus’ most mysterious and lesser-known disciples. He received only a handful of mentions in the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke), the gospel of John, and the book of Acts. The two Judes (or Judases) completed Jesus’ circle of disciples, but they were distinguished from each other by their surnames with one being Iscariot and the other Thaddeus. His identity became more confusing as some verses mentioned him as the brother of Jesus and James (Matthew 13:55; Mark 6:3), while another verse identified him as the son of James (Luke 6:16). According to tradition, he was also identified as the son of Clopas and Mary, the Virgin Mary’s cousin.

It was only in the gospel of John that Jude got a “speaking part” when he asked Jesus why he chose to reveal himself to his disciples and not to the whole world. All his other deeds during Jesus’ short ministry were not recorded in all four gospels. Jude was mentioned once again in the Book of Acts as one of the disciples who remained with the small group of new Christians after Jesus’ death and ascension.

Jude was credited with writing the brief epistle that bore his name and written between 65 to 80 AD. The epistle—addressed to unknown recipients—dealt with the danger of believing in false teachers and was ended with a call to remain steadfast in the Christian faith. Apart from this epistle, all other information associated with Jude the apostle can be gleaned only from tradition. Such as his mission in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Cyrenaica (Libya), as well as his return to Jerusalem in 62 AD to help in the election of his brother, St. Simeon, as Bishop of Jerusalem.

It was said that he died as a martyr in Syria along with another apostle, Simon the Zealot, and venerated as patron saint of desperate causes and situations. His feast day is celebrated every 28th of October.

References:
Picture By Anthony van Dyck – [1], Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5266986
“St. Jude Thaddaeus – Saints & Angels – Catholic Online.” Catholic Online. Accessed August 24, 2016. http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=127.
Cruz, Joan Carroll. Relics: What They Are and Why They Matter. Charlotte, NC: Tan Books, 2015

Posted on September 22, 2016October 20, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Thule People Expand to Alaska

Years ago during the Late Glacial Maximum, humans crossed from Asia to North America via the Bering Land Bridge and one of those groups of migrants were the Thule people. Siberia, the region where the migrants came from, was inhospitable, but Alaska was no different. The Thule people, however, managed to survive in the hostile environment. They spread out on the coasts as well as to the various islands of the Bering Sea. This is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History around 500 AD.

“Whalebone used in the building of an ancient Thule home.”

The period between 200 AD to about 800 AD of the Thule culture was called the Old Bering Sea Stage. This period was marked by the presence and increased use of kayaks and umiaks covered with walrus or seal skins for transportation, while stone tools gave way for slate tools. Some of the artifacts recovered from the Thule culture sites, which date back to the Old Bering Sea Stage, include harpoon points made out of bones and antlers, fishing spears, and walrus scapula shovels. They also hunted sea mammals, such as whales and seals, as sources of food and clothing. Around 1000 AD, the climate became warmer, and the Thule people decided to migrate east to follow the whale migration to the Canadian Arctic. There they interacted with the Dorset people and became the ancestors of the modern Inuit.

References:
Picture By Timkal – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19171183
Grimbly, Shona. Encyclopedia of the Ancient World. London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000.
Wesson, Cameron B. Historical Dictionary of Early North America. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2005.

Posted on September 21, 2016October 19, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Tikal Becomes the Largest City-State in Mesoamerica with 500,000 Inhabitants

Tikal was in a state of decline by the middle of the sixth century AD when it was defeated by the southern kingdom of Caracol with the help of the northern kingdom of Calakmul. Tikal’s defeat was so devastating that there was a drop in the construction projects sponsored by its rulers. The other magnificent monuments of the Early Classic Period were either mutilated or destroyed. Its territory shrank, and at this point, Caracol was still a powerful force in the region; although the control had already shifted to the Maya lowland city of Calakmul in the modern Campeche region of Mexico. However, Tikal’s struggles were not sufficient enough to prevent the city from later becoming the largest in Mesoamerica. Which was towards the end of the 6th century, according to the Bible Timeline with World History.

Tikal_Grows — “The history of Classic Maya civilization was dominated by the rivalry between the opposed alliance networks of Calakmul and Tikal”

“The history of Classic Maya civilization was dominated by the rivalry between the opposed alliance networks of Calakmul and Tikal”

The tables turned when King J’asaw Chan K’awiil of Tikal and his troops defeated the city of Calakmul in the Late Post-Classic period. This victory was commemorated with the construction of several buildings with carvings that showed the defeated king of Calakmul bound and later sacrificed. Yik’in Chan K’awiil, J’asaw’s son, continued this expansion. It was during his reign that Tikal was transformed into a city of magnificent temples and plazas.

It became one of the largest Maya city-states in Mesoamerica during this period with the population estimated between 40,000 and as much as 500,000. The people were spread out in Tikal’s territory of 2,500 sq km or 950 sq miles deep in the El Peten rainforest. This period was also Tikal’s most prosperous, as seen in the abundance of goods buried with their rulers. Tikal continued to dominate the Maya lowland region until it was abandoned at some point in 800 AD.

References:
Picture By chensiyuan – chensiyuan, GFDL, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8861564
Cremin, Aedeen. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2007.
Sharer, Robert J., and Loa P. Traxler. The Ancient Maya. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.

Posted on September 20, 2016September 7, 2016 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mississippian Culture of Moundbuilders Replaces Hopewell

The Hopewell Culture, centred in the southern region of Ohio, was in its dying stages in 500 AD. The vacuum the Hopewell left was filled with and continued by the Mississippian Culture. This is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World history around the late 5th century.

Trade networks developed between 200 AD and 400 AD collapsed. The Hopewell people then moved to more isolated settlements. The construction of mound effigies—the earthworks of which the Hopewell culture was identified with—decreased and in many settlements, were abandoned altogether.

Mississippi_Mound_builders — “The Kincaid Site, a Mississippian settlement in southern Illinois”

“The Kincaid Site, a Mississippian settlement in southern Illinois”

The Mississippian Culture’s territory spanned from the Southeastern part of North America to the Midwest. Some of the culture’s well-known urban centers were built in Cahokia and Kincaid in Illinois, Moundville in Alabama, Aztalan in Wisconsin, Angel Mounds Site in Indiana, and Spiro in Oklahoma. They were often surrounded by smaller villages and agricultural lands strategically positioned in river valleys and tributaries of major waterways. The Mississippian people did not irrigate their fields and preferred instead to till the rich soil of the floodplains to plant their crops, which consisted of maize, squash, and beans.

One of the distinct markers of the Mississippian Culture was the construction of massive mounds. They were used as bases for temples or the houses of secular and religious rulers. The largest that spanned between 14 to 16 feet at the base and reached a height of up to 100 feet. The Monks Mound of the Cahokia Mounds group was the largest of these earthworks built by the Mississippians.

References:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chromesun_kincaid_site_01.jpg#/media/File:Chromesun_kincaid_site_01.jpg“Hopewell Culture – Ohio History Central.” Hopewell Culture – Ohio History Central. Accessed June 14, 2016. http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Hopewell_Culture?rec=1283.
Thackeray, Frank W., and John E. Findling. What Happened? An Encyclopedia of Events that Changed America Forever [4 volumes]. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995.
“An Introduction to North America’s Native People.” NATIVE PEOPLES of NORTH AMERICA. Accessed June 14, 2016. http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/mississ.html.
“Mississippian Period: Overview.” New Georgia Encyclopedia. Accessed June 14, 2016. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/mississippian-period-overview.

Posted on September 19, 2016April 29, 2021 by Kat Cendana — 2 Comments

Kingdoms (220-280), Three

End of the Han Dynasty

The revolt of the Yellow Turbans started in 184 AD amidst the corrupt and turbulent twilight years of Han Dynasty. This peasant revolt started on the outskirts of the Han territory but by 189 AD, the violence had reached the gates of the capital Luoyang. Emperor Ling of Han died young in the same year (33 or 34 years old) but did not name an heir to succeed him. His unexpected death left the decision to declare an emperor into the hands of the empress dowager (Emperor Ling’s widow) and the powerful eunuch Jian Shuo. In May of 189, they declared one of Emperor Ling’s sons, the young Prince of Hongnong as the new Emperor Shao of Han. The eunuch Jian Shuo also secretly planned the wholesale purge of Han generals so that he alone would remain powerful, but the news reached a Han general who organized another purge of the palace eunuchs himself. This eventually led to the Three Kingdoms between 220 – 270 AD as listed on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History.

A bloody purge of both sides started, but while the eunuchs and the generals were at each other’s throats, a general named Dong Zhou took advantage of the situation and took over the palace. He removed Emperor Shao from his position, imprisoned the empress dowager, and appointed his own ministers. The 14-year old Emperor Shao and his younger brother fled the palace, but the boys returned after they realized the harsh realities of life outside its walls. With no food and no one to shelter them, the boys asked for the protection of Dong Zhou, to which the general agreed. He was smarter than the boys realized as Dong Zhou immediately proclaimed the easier-to-manipulate younger brother, Liu Xie, as Emperor Xian and had the older Emperor Shao poisoned.

The Three Kingdoms: Wei, Shu, and Wu

While the palace eunuchs, Han generals, and Dong Zhou were busy asserting their power in Luoyang, another general, Cao Cao, plotted to gain more power for himself. When the Yellow Turban fighters threatened Luoyang, Dong Zhou set fire to the Han capital and fled with the Emperor Xian to Chang’an. Cao Cao caught up with them and then killed Dong Zhou; he then offered his protection to Emperor Xian in a bid to control the young emperor. When he saw that he had no choice, Emperor Xian accepted Cao Cao’s offer and went back to Luoyang to rule. However, he was nothing more than a puppet emperor as Cao Cao retained most of the power over what remained of the Han empire. The empire was not of much use for either of them too as it had fractured into different states ruled by a general who frequently went up against each other. Cao Cao’s rivals, the generals Liu Bei (later, ruler of Shu Kingdom) and Sun Quan (later, Lord of Wu Kingdom), also rose during this period.

The three general’s quest for domination peaked in 208 AD at the Battle of Red Cliffs which saw Cao Cao’s navy defeated by Liu Bei’s and Sun Quan’s. Cao Cao and his troops failed to wrest the former Han territories located south of the Yangtze River, and many of his men died during the retreat. The defeated Cao Cao retreated north to Luoyang and did not venture into another battle against the two warlords again. He controlled the remainder of the Eastern Han Empire until his death (although Emperor Xian remained as a figurehead for the rest of his life), and the crown passed on to Cao Cao’s son upon the general’s death. This ended the Han Dynasty’s rule over the Empire (or what remained of it), and new dynasties ushered in the Three Kingdoms period.

The former Han empire was now officially fragmented. The warlord Sun Quan now held the kingdom of Wu with its capital Jianye (modern Nanjing), while Liu Bei ruled from the Shu Dynasty’s capital Chengdu. Cao Pi, Cao Cao’s son, ruled from the remnant of the north, now called the kingdom of Cao Wei.

Unrest and civil wars continued during the Three Kingdoms Period. Over the years, the state of Cao Wei was involved with a series of minor battles with the states of Shu and Wu. Cao Wei was also involved in a war against the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo after the latter invaded Xi’anping near the Yalu River. Cao Wei’s troops ravaged the Goguryeo capital of Hwando in return, and many of its people resettled in Wei territories. The continued unrest within the Cao Wei state led to its gradual decay and eventual fall of Cao Cao’s dynasty to Sima Yan, the first emperor of Jin Dynasty.

The state of Shu was also plagued with and weakened by internal strife until it fell to the state of Wei in 263 AD. The state of Wu did not fare any better as it was also involved in other wars and plagued by rebellions. Succession problems added to its gradual fragmentation, and it fell to the stronger kingdom of Cao Wei in 264 AD after the death of its last ruler, Sun Hao.

References:
Picture By Dhugal Fletcher from Singapore, Singapore – Cao Cao, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15870384
Bauer, Susan Wise. The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome. New York: W.W. Norton, 2007.
Perkins, Dorothy. Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History, and Culture. Routledge, 2013.