Alphabetical Index to Bible Timeline – Page 13 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on March 27, 2017March 16, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Gregory IX

Gregory IX reigned between 1227 and 1241 where he can be found on the Biblical Timeline with World History. He was a controversial figure in papal history because of his part in the Inquisition against religious movements he considered as heretical. The pope also had a hard relationship with the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily Frederick II Hohenstaufen.

Early Life and Election as Pope

Pope Gregory IX was born in 1145 in the ancient town of Anagni. He descended from the noble house of the Segni. The boy was named Ugo (or Ugolino), and he became the Count of Segni before his election as pope. He studied in Paris and Bologna in his youth. His uncle, Pope Innocent III, later appointed him the cardinal deacon of the church of Sant’ Eustachio in 1198. He was elevated to cardinal bishop of Ostia in 1206. It was a position that he kept until his election as pope. He became a papal legate to Germany many times during his service as cardinal bishop. He was also a staunch supporter of the Crusade. He preached its endorsement twice in Italy in 1217. He was then appointed as the Dean of the College of Cardinals in the following year.

He was elected as pope in 1227 after the death of Pope Honorius III and took the name Gregory IX to honor the monastery of Saint Gregory ad Septem Solia. The 83-year old pope canonized Saint Francis of Assisi the next year. It was followed by the canonization of Saint Dominic later in 1234. He was a supporter of both religious orders, and after a time sent Franciscan and Dominican missionaries to Finland and Romania. He also favored the Cistercian and Camaldolese orders, as well as the supporters of the twelfth-century theologian Joachim of Fiore.

Heresies

Pope Gregory IX played a great part in the suppression of the followers of the religious movements that he considered as heretical, such as Catharism (Albigensians in France) and the Waldensian movement (a forerunner of Protestantism). Both started out in France and spread in some parts of Europe. He enlisted the help of Raymond VII of Toulouse to stamp out these beliefs. Local bishops were in charge of the procedures for Inquisition in the past, but Gregory placed it under his direct control later. He supported the Militia of Jesus Christ in 1234 to pursue heretics and placed it under the Dominican Order. Although the Inquisition centered in parts of France, Germany, and Italy, it gradually spread to Spain during the reign of King James I of Aragon.

Gregory died on the 22nd of August, 1241.

References:
Picture By Raphael – http://www.2artgallery.com/gallery/gregory-ix-approving-the-decretals-1511-by-raphael-p-5638.html?osCsid=ac17d37966aa52b020eb8f8e86d9f940, Public Domain, Link
Douglas, J. D. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Pub., 1978.
Kleinhenz, Christopher. Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge, 2004.
“Pope Gregory IX – Catholic Encyclopedia – Catholic Online.” Catholic Online. Accessed November 09, 2016. http://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=5367.

Posted on March 24, 2017March 16, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Nicholas II

Nicholas II (born Gerard de Bourgogne or Gerard of Burgundy) served as the canon of Liege in his youth and was appointed as Bishop of Florence in 1046. He is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History during 1059 AD. When Pope Stephen X (IX) died on the 19th of March, 1058, the Lombard nobles led by Count of Tusculum Gregory de Alberico, Gerard Count of Galeria, and the sons of Crescentius of Monticello orchestrated the “election” of John, Bishop of Velletri, as pope. He adopted the name Benedict X, but the cardinals fled from Rome so that the Lombard counts had no choice but hire an illiterate priest of the Church of Ostia to confirm Benedict.

Benedict’s election was opposed by the Romans and particularly by the powerful Roman pontiff Hildebrand (later Pope Gregory VII) who then elected Gerard as pope. The Bishop of Florence was previously nominated by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III as pope. It helped that he was a favorite of the German court. Hildebrand’s equally powerful allies condemned Benedict’s election in 1059 and branded him as an antipope. Gerard, meanwhile, entered Rome with a large force behind him in the same year so that Benedict had no choice but flee to one of the sons of Crescentius in Passarano.

Nicholas was officially elected as pope in January of 1059, and Benedict’s deposition came shortly in the same ceremony. He was enthroned at Saint Peter’s, and he adopted the name Nicholas II. However, his problems were far from over as he was in a delicate position amidst a chaotic political landscape. Italy, at that time, was the battleground for political issues which involved the Germans, the Franks, the Byzantines, the Lombards, and the formidable newcomers, the Normans. Benedict, meanwhile, had fled Passarano and had taken refuge in the castle of Gerard, Count of Galeria.

To end the issue once and for all, Hildebrand encouraged the Norman Richard of Aversa (who occupied southern Italy) to pledge his loyalty to Pope Nicholas. Richard accepted the alliance and sent 300 men to besiege the castle of Galeria in spring of 1059. They failed to breach the castle, but the alliance definitely improved the relationship between the Normans and the pope.

Synod of 1059 (Papal Election Decree)

To address the irregularity of Benedict’s election and the issues that went along with it, Nicholas convened the Synod of 1059 with 113 bishops in attendance. The council came up with rules that would prevent the repetition of corrupt papal election practices (such as simony and bribery) and it was followed by an affirmation of the legality of Nicholas’ own election. Simony (the practice of selling church offices) and concubinage committed by the clergy were also condemned; additional condemnation for the heresies of Berengarius of Tours (was condemned years before) was also issued by the same council. The Lombard bishops, however, did not publish the decrees after they were bribed by the enemies of Nicholas. The only exception was the bishop of Brescia who was beaten to death for publishing the decrees.

Nicholas_II — “Robert Guiscard established the Norman rule in Italy”

Nicholas and Robert Guiscard

The Norman adventurer and one-time bandit chief Robert Guiscard rose to prominence when he became the Count of Apulia after he distinguished himself in the battle against Pope Leo IX’s troops. Robert Guiscard established the Norman rule in Italy and apart from the Lombards, the Normans were the most powerful force in Southern Italy during the eleventh century. According to Byzantine princess and historian Anna Komnena, Robert was renowned for his strength in battle but mostly for his cunning. In 1059, he sent Pope Nicholas envoys to establish goodwill and negotiated with the pope by returning the papal lands (patrimonies) in the Council of Melfi held in 1059.

Nicholas, in turn, absolved him of “ecclesiastical disapproval” and recognized Robert as the Duke of Apulia, Calabria, and the island of Sicily when the Normans drove out the Saracens from the island. Robert later pledged his loyalty to the pope and agreed to become the vassal of the Church. The pope’s deal with Robert did not sit well with the Germans, but in the long run, it resulted in a long-term peace in Southern Italy during the eleventh century. Robert also contributed Norman warriors to the pope’s troops when they defeated the Lombards.

Later Years and Death

In late 1059, Nicholas repaid Hildebrand’s support by appointing him as an archdeacon. His fortunes, however, suddenly took a downturn when German bishops tried to depose him because of the unpopular papal election decrees he approved in the Synod of 1059l. In the last year of his life, Nicholas supported the Siege of Alipergum and reaffirmed the decrees of the synod when he returned to Rome after the siege. On July 27, 1061, Nicholas fell sick and died in the city of Florence. His remains were buried in the church of Santa Reparata in the same city.

References:
Picture By MapMaster – Own work, CC BY-SA 2.5, Link
Mann, Horace K., and Johannes Hollnsteiner. The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages: The Popes of the Gregorian Renaissance. Vol. VI. London: B. Herder, 1925.
Weber, Nicholas. “Pope Nicholas II.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 19 Oct. 2016 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11055a.htm>.

Posted on March 23, 2017March 16, 2017 by Kat Cendana — 1 Comment

Toulouse, Council of

The Council of Toulouse was held in 1229 in response to the Albigensian heresy that rose in France where it is recorded on the Biblical Timeline with World History. The Council decreed that the common people (those who were not priests) should not read unauthorized copies of the Bible.

Heresies and the Ban of Reading Unauthorized Bibles

In the eleventh century, a new belief that came from Manichaeism found its way in some parts of France and Italy. This belief spread into southern Europe, and a lot of its believers came from the town of Albi in France that is why they were called the Albigensians. The Albigenses considered themselves Christians, but what made them different was their belief in the god of light and the god of darkness. For them, life was a constant struggle, and the two gods fought each other every day. Other Albigensian beliefs also included:

toulouse_council_of — “The Council decreed that the common people (those who were not priests) should not read unauthorized copies of the Bible.”

* The belief that when people died, they would be reincarnated into another body
* The ban on eating meat
* The disapproval of marriage
* The belief that men and women are equal
* The refusal to submit to authorities, especially the feudal lords

The number of Albigensian believers grew in southern Europe until the pope became alarmed at the spread of the heresy. At first, he ordered the priests to bring them back to the “right” path through preaching and teaching. To prevent the Albigensian beliefs from spreading, the local bishop assembled the Council of Toulouse in 1229. The council told the people to look for the heretics in their own areas and allowed the people to destroy their houses. The council also ordered the people to destroy Bibles that were translated into French and other non-Latin languages. The people were also prohibited from reading any of the unauthorized copies of the Bible.

The Inquisition started in 1233, and the suffering of the Albigensians only increased as the years passed. The decision to forbid the people from reading non-Latin Bibles would be confirmed in the Tarragona Council in 1234.

References:
Gieseler, Johann Karl Ludwig. Text-book of Ecclesiastical History Volume 2. Carey, Lea, and Blanchard, 1836.
McDonald, James. “Cathars and Cathar Beliefs in the Languedoc.” Accessed November 16, 2016. http://www.cathar.info/.
Mizzi, Dr Joseph. “Bible Forbidden to the Laity.” Just for Catholics. Accessed November 16, 2016. http://justforcatholics.org/a198.htm.

Posted on March 22, 2017March 16, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Victor IV, Antipope

The Antipope Victor IV started his reign in 1159 (where he is recorded on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History) and ended it upon his death in 1162. Some parts of Western Europe and the Roman Catholic Church went through upheavals during his 5-year reign as pope.

The Antipope

The Antipope Victor was born Octaviannus or Octavian (Ottaviano dei Crescenzi Ottavianni dei Monticelli). He belonged to a powerful family that ruled Tusculum during the Medieval Period. Little was known of his early life except that he served as a cardinal priest at Santa Cecilia in Rome before his election as pope in 1159. The Ghibellines (Wibellingen) or the faction of the Hohenstaufen family of Swabia supported his election. He adopted the name Victor IV soon after his election.

The majority of the Roman bishops, however, rejected Victor IV and elected Alexander III as pope. In 1160, Victor’s supporter Frederick Barbarossa was forced to rule in his favor during a synod in Pavia. Alexander, meanwhile, answered this by excommunicating the Holy Roman Emperor and his chosen pope.

The majority of bishops and abbots from other European nations sided with Pope Alexander. However, the opposing faction was too powerful, so he had no choice but to flee to and seek refuge in France in 1162. He returned to Rome when the antipope Victor IV died in 1164.

References:
Picture By 1881 young Persons’ Cyclopedia of Persons and Placeshttp://www.creatinghistory.com/frederick-i-barbarossa/, Public Domain, Link
Gurugé, Anura, and Matt Kirkland. The Next Pope. Alton, NH: WOWNH, 2011. Print.
Löffler, Klemens. “Victor IV.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 9 Nov. 2016<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15411a.htm>.
Williams, George L. Papal Genealogy: The Families and Descendants of the Popes. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004. Print.

Posted on March 21, 2017March 16, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Clement II

Pope Clement II Suidger was born from an aristocratic Saxon family and the second German to become Pope in 1046 AD. He was the son of Count Konrad of Morsleben and Hornburg by a woman named Amulrad. Little is known about his early life apart from this tidbit of family background. Clement started a life of dedication to the Catholic Church when he served as a chaplain of the archbishop of Hamburg and then as a canon (priest) of Saint Stephen’s at Halberstadt. In 1040, he was confirmed as the Bishop of Bamberg and elected as pope on December 25, 1046, where he is recorded on the Bible Timeline with World History.

He adopted the name Clement II, and the coronation of Henry III, as well as his wife Agnes, was held soon after Clement’s election. One of his first acts as pope was to condemn the practice of selling church offices known as simony in the Council of Rome that was convened in 1047. The punishment was a bit lenient as those who were caught only needed to do penance for forty days. This was the start of reforms that would be carried out by the popes who succeeded Clement II. He also confirmed the privileges of the Fulda monastery, the monastery of Holy Trinity in Vendome, and the Bamberg Cathedral (he kept the bishopric of Bamberg even while he served as pope).

Some months after his election, Clement accompanied Henry III to Southern Italy for an inspection of the emperor’s territories. They were welcomed everywhere they went except for the Duchy of Benevento. They turned back and headed north, but Clement fell ill while granting land to the monastery of Saint Thomas on the 24th of September, 1047. Benedict of Tusculum was rumored to have ordered the poisoning of Clement II, but it was also possible that he died because he contracted malaria (Roman fever). Before his death, he wrote to Henry III (who was, by then, in Germany) and requested for his body to be transported to his homeland in the event of his death. Clement died on the 9th of October, 1047. His body was later buried in the Bamberg Cathedral—the only pope whose remains were interred in Germany.

References:
Picture By Artaud de Montor (1772–1849) – http://archive.org/details/thelivesandtimes00montuoft, Public Domain, Link
Kollmorgen, Gregor. “Catholic Bamberg: The Vestments of Pope Clement II and Other Treasures from the Diocesan Museum.” New Liturgical Movement:. Accessed October 19, 2016. http://www.newliturgicalmovement.org/2009/05/catholic-bamberg-vestments-of-pope.html#.WAc3leh97IU.
Mann, Horace K. The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages. 5, The Popes in the Days of Feudal Anarchy: Formosus to Damasus II., 891-1048. Vol. 4. B. Herder, 1910.

Posted on March 20, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Alexander III

Pope Alexander III started his turbulent reign as Roman Pontiff in 1159 and ended it in 1181 where he is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History. He had to deal with the powerful Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and the antipopes who rose during his reign.

Early Life

The future Alexander III was born Rolando (or Orlando) in the city of Siena in 1105. According to tradition, he descended from the powerful Tuscan family of the Bandinelli and was the son of Rainucci of Siena. He served as a professor of theology (canon law) in Bologna and may have taught in the city of Pisa. Pope Eugene visited Pisa in 1148 and heard about the brilliance of Rolando as a lawyer and theologian. So the pope had him brought to Rome. The pope later appointed him as a cardinal deacon of Santi Cosma e Damiano in Rome, a cardinal priest at St. Mark’s, and finally, as Chancellor of the Apostolic See.

Election as Pope

The previous Pope Adrian IV died in the town of Anagni in 1159. While he was on his deathbed, the cardinal priests were worried that someone from Frederick Barbarossa’s camp would be elected as pope. As Adrian lay dying, they agreed not to elect anyone supported by Frederick Barbarossa’s camp, particularly Octavian, the cardinal priest of Santa Cecilia in Travestere. The election was held in Rome after Adrian’s burial. As expected, the majority of cardinals voted for Rolando while the rest voted for Octavian.

There was a commotion when Octavian wrested the pope’s scarlet mantle from the archdeacon when he attempted to give it to Rolando. Rolando also tried to grab the mantle from Octavian, but he had already worn it and declared himself the elected Pope Victor IV to the people who waited outside. It was followed by more chaos until Victor IV (Octavian) was acclaimed by the confused Romans.

Flight and Exile

Rolando (now named Alexander III) retreated to the sanctuary of Cardinal Boso (a cousin of the deceased Pope Adrian IV) near St. Peter’s. He later fled to and sought refuge in Cisterna Di Latina outside Rome out of fear for his safety. He was consecrated in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore on September 20, 1159. It was followed by the excommunication of Antipope Victor IV and his backer, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. But both men only ignored his decree.

Frederick Barbarossa assembled the Council of Pavia in 1160. It was, however, attended by abbots and bishops of the West who favored Alexander as pope. The council did not end very well, and Alexander returned to Rome in 1161. With no end in sight to the schism and without an access to the papal treasury, he went on an exile to France from 1161 to 1165.

Frederick, meanwhile, made many expeditions in Italy. His power was weakened when Victor IV died in 1164, so he supported another antipope, Guido of Crema, who later took the name Paschal III. The struggle for power between Frederick and Alexander was only resolved in 1176 after the Lombard League defeated the emperor’s troops in the Battle of Legnano in 1176.

Last Years

Pope Alexander was a supporter of the English Archbishop Thomas Becket, so he had him canonized as a saint in 1173, three years after his murder. During the last years of his life, Pope Alexander introduced the principle of two-thirds in the election of the pope to prevent another controversy. A new wave of violence in Rome once again forced him to flee the city. It was for the last time as he died on the 30th of August, 1181, in the Civita Castellana in the province of Viterbo.

References:
Picture By © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro / , CC BY-SA 3.0, Link
Clarke, Peter D., and Anne Duggan. Pope Alexander III (1159-81): The Art of Survival. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate, 2012. Print.
Kleinhenz, Christopher. Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge, 2004. Print.
Mann, Horace K., and Johannes Hollnsteiner. The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages. Vol. 10. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1902. Print.

Posted on March 17, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Adrian IV

Pope

Pope Adrian IV reigned as pope from 1154 until 1159 which is where he is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History. His short reign was stormy as he started it right in the middle of the conflict between the Norman King William of Sicily and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany. He also had to deal with the rebellion of the reformist Arnold of Brescia.

Early Life and Rise to Prominence

Pope Adrian IV was born Nicholas Breakspear around 1100. He came from a family of modest means in the city of St. Albans, Hertfordshire County. His father was a clerk named Robert, and he was a cousin to the future Cardinal Boso who also became his biographer. Nicholas became a monk at the abbey of St. Albans during his youth but left it to study in Paris in 1125. After his stay in Paris, he travelled to Provence in southern France and worked as a clerk at the Church in Saint James Melgorium in Maguelone. He also studied in Arles, and later served at the monastery of Saint Rufus in Avignon where he became a canon regular and prior.

He became an abbot around 1137 or 1145, but his reformist beliefs clashed with the beliefs of the monks. This did not escape the notice of Pope Eugene III who ordained him as bishop and then as cardinal of Albano in Italy in 1150. He became a Eugene III’s papal legate to Norway in 1152 where he helped reconcile the sons of the murdered Norwegian king Harald Gilla Christe. Nicholas created the Diocese of Hamar in Hedmark county, made Trondheim a metropolitan bishopric, and initiated reforms that endeared him to the Norwegian Christians. He also travelled to Sweden where he made Gamla Uppsala a metropolitan bishopric. He also introduced the payment of Peter’s pence to Scandinavia which was a tax sent by English Christians to the pope to help support the poor pilgrims who lived in the Schola Saxonum.

Election as Pope and Struggles

Meanwhile, Pope Eugene III had died in 1153 in Rome, and Pope Anastasius IV succeeded him. The new pope lasted only a year and seven months in the office until he, too, died in 1154. Nicholas had returned a couple of months before the death of Pope Anastasius IV, so the cardinals elected him as pope on December 4, 1154. They held his consecration at St Peter’s the next day, and he adopted Adrian IV as his papal name.

But the new Pope Adrian IV inherited the problems of Pope Eugene III and Anastasius IV with the Norman King William of Sicily, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, and the nobles who fought each other for the domination of Italy. The reformer Arnold of Brescia also clashed with the pope when he advocated poverty within the church. But he was banished from Rome by Adrian and then excommunicated as punishment. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa did Pope Adrian IV a favor when he captured Arnold of Brescia and brought him back to Rome to be executed.

This was just the start of Adrian’s problems with Frederick Barbarossa when both men refused to submit to each other during the German king’s coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in Sutri. Pope Adrian refused to crown him as Holy Roman Emperor for his defiance. But Frederick finally relented. He was crowned at Saint Peter’s on the 18th of June, 1155. His coronation ended when the Romans rioted so that he, along with Pope Adrian and his guards, had to flee to Tivoli to escape their enemies.

Adrian came with Frederick to Germany as Italy was still unstable at that time. But he returned some time later and recognized the Norman King William of Sicily as ruler of a large part of southern Italy in exchange for a yearly tribute. The Holy Roman Emperor was unhappy with the turn of events in Italy. A misunderstanding between the papal legates and Frederick’s chancellor in the diet of Besancon in 1157 also worsened the relationship between the two. Adrian tried to patch things up with Frederick in 1158. However, he died of quinsy on September 1, 1959, in the town of Anagni before their relationship could improve.

References:
Picture By PHGCOM – self-made, photographed at Notre-Dame de Paris, GFDL, Link
Mann, Horace K. The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1925.
Robinson, I. S. The Papacy, 1073-1198: Continuity and Innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990.
Ua Clerigh, Arthur. “Pope Adrian IV.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 9 Nov. 2016 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01156c.htm>.

Posted on March 16, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — 1 Comment

Sylvester II

Early Life

Pope Sylvester II was born in or near the town of Aurillac in Western Francia around 945/946. He is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History at 1003 AD.The boy was the son of a commoner named Agilbert, a native of Aquitaine, and he named his son Gerbert upon his birth. The boy was sent to the Benedictine monastery of St. Gerald where he learned theology and grammar under the Benedictine monk Raimond and the Abbot Gerauld.

Gerbert was an enthusiastic student. He was liberated from the cloistered life of a monk when Count Borell II visited the monastery on his way home to Catalonia from Aquitaine in 967. When it was time for Count Borell to leave, the abbot Gerauld asked him whether there were men of learning in Spain. When the count said that there were many, Gerauld convinced his young charge to accompany the count to the Spanish March. In another version, it was Gerbert himself who asked the Count whether he could accompany him to Spain which offered more opportunity to learn than the monastery in Aurillac.

Rise to Prominence

Gerbert lived in Santa Maria de Ripoll, a Benedictine monastery near Barcelona in Catalonia. He lived there for three years before Count Borell took him to Rome on a pilgrimage. This was where Gerbert met the Pope John XIII and Emperor Otto I. Impressed with the young monk, John XIII convinced Gerbert to enter the service of Otto I by becoming the tutor of the emperor’s son Otto II. He did so around 971/972. There he met Gerannus, Lothair of France’s envoy in Otto’s court who also happened to be a renowned logician. Gerbert was so impressed with the ambassador that he requested Otto to let him go and accompany Gerannus back to Reims as his student.

Politics

He stayed in Reims for some time and was promoted as abbot of the Bobbio Abbey in 984. His stint as the abbot of Bobbio was short-lived for the call of the scholarly life was too strong. He returned to Reims in the same year to be the student of Bishop Adalbero. He became entangled in politics the moment he arrived in Reims when he helped the bishop secure the throne of the young Otto III in Germany and of Hugh Capet in France against the Carolingian king Louis V the Lazy. He later became the secretary of Otto’s aunt and Louis V’s mother Emma whose relationship with her son was not too amicable because of her frustrations with his idleness (hence the “Lazy” nickname).

The two clerics’ endorsement of Otto III as emperor did not sit well with Louis V. So he attacked Reims but failed to take it and retaliated by destroying the properties held by Bishop Adalbero. The distraught bishop was forced to send Gerbert to Otto III’s mother Theophanu to appeal for help, but Louis died in 987 before Theophanu could do anything about it. His death heralded the end of the Carolingians. He was succeeded by Hugh Capet as king of Western Francia in the same year. Adalbero, however, died as Louis V, so the archbishop’s office remained vacant just in time for Hugh Capet’s accession.

Many people, including Gerbert himself, expected him to succeed Adalbero as archbishop of Reims but he was passed over when Hugh Capet rejected Gerbert’s appointment. He appointed Arnulf (a member of the Carolingian family) as the archbishop of Reims instead. With this act, Hugh Capet sought to divide the Carolingian heirs among themselves through the appointment of one of their own to an esteemed position in the Frankish political scene. To appease Gerbert, however, Hugh Capet offered other clerical positions to him except for the archbishopric of Reims.

Hugh’s strategy backfired when Arnulf, along with his Carolingian uncle Charles, took over Reims and ruled it without the king’s help. Gerbert sided with Arnulf and Charles for some time (perhaps out of fear for his safety or he wanted to retaliate for Hugh’s rejection). He did not stay in their service for long and he reconciled with Hugh Capet in 990. Hugh tried to disentangle the whole mess he created when he appointed Arnulf. Together with Gerbert, he assembled the Synod or Council of Reims in June of 991 to remove Arnulf from the position. They also tried to elect Gerbert as archbishop of Reims, but Arnulf only ignored the ruling when news of his deposition reached him. It did not help that the Synod of Reims itself was not recognized by Pope Gregory V.

Gerbert asked Otto III’s grandmother for help, but she, too, was unable to get Arnulf out of Reims. He also personally appealed to Gregory V in Rome in 996 to no avail. Hugh Capet died in 996, and Otto III left Italy in the same year, so he was left without his backers at that time. He departed Western Francia for good in 997 and lived in Otto III’s court in Germany where he served in a monastery in Sasbach.

Pope Sylvester II

Gerbert accompanied Otto to Ravenna in 998. There he readily accepted the archbishopric of the city when it was offered to him. Perhaps in an effort to make amends and as a way to settle the problems with Arnulf, Pope Gregory V ratified his archbishopric immediately. He was proclaimed the archbishop of Ravenna in 999. However, this was short-lived as Gregory died in February of the same year. Otto endorsed his adviser Gerbert as the deceased pope’s successor. He adopted the name Sylvester II after his election.

The newly elected Pope Sylvester II also confirmed Arnulf’s election as Archbishop of Reims (whether he felt generous at that time or he simply wanted to mock Arnulf, his motive was never really determined). His tenure as pope, however, was extremely short as the Romans rebelled against Otto and Sylvester II in 1001. Both were forced to flee to Ravenna and other non-hostile cities in Italy soon after. Otto tried to retake Rome several times but he died on his way there in 1002. His death was followed by Sylvester in 1003.

References:
Picture By Unknown – http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?id=1832, Public Domain, Link
Douglas, J.D., and Earle E. Cairns, eds. The New Dictionary of the Christian Church. Michigan: Zondervan Pub. House, 1996.
Mann, Horace K. The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages. 5, The Popes in the Days of Feudal Anarchy: Formosus to Damasus II., 891-1048. Vol. 4. B. Herder, 1910.

Posted on March 15, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mongols Embrace Islam

The Mongols practiced shamanism in their homeland, but they were also tolerant of other religions. In fact, many of them practiced Nestorian Christianity, Buddhism, and Taoism in the past. The great Genghis Khan’s conquest of Central Asia and Iran opened the door for their conversion to Islam. The Mongols later embraced Islam when they pushed further into Western Asia. Their conversion to Islam is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History during 1235 AD.

From Shamanism to Islam

The Mongols (just like other Turkic peoples) believed in and worshipped the Sky God Tengri. They believed that their Khan (supreme leader or king) was Tengri’s representative on earth. The Mongol khans were tolerant of people who practiced other religions, but they also demanded respect from those that they ruled.

Nestorian Christianity and Tibetan Buddhism had arrived in Mongolia many years before. The Franciscan missionary William of Rubruck himself visited the Mongolian capital in 1254. He saw churches and temples in the city. The Mongols would later convert to Islam after they conquered a large part of Central and Western Asia.

mongols_convert_to_islam — “Hulagu Khan”

In 1258, a large army led by Hulagu Khan marched into Baghdad and demanded the submission of the Abbasid caliph al-Musta’sim. He refused to submit, and it resulted in the disastrous Siege of Baghdad in 1258. Many of Baghdad’s people were killed in the siege, and from then on, the Mongols ruled a large part of West Asia. When Hulagu died, the Ilkhans (subordinate khans) took over and ruled Persia. Meanwhile, two other Mongol khanates such as the Golden Horde and the White Horde ruled other areas.

Berke, Genghis Khan’s grandson, was said to be the first of the Mongol rulers who converted to Islam. Another Ilkhan Mongol ruler named Ghazan converted to Islam in 1295. All Ilkhan rulers of Persia from then on were Muslims. Ghazan conquered Aleppo four years later, but they were defeated by the Mamluks in Syria during 1303.

Relations between the Mongols and the Muslims improved when the Mongols of the Golden Horde converted to Islam with the help of the Mamluk ruler. Some of them also travelled to Egypt in the early years of the fourteenth century and converted to Islam. Later on, all three of the Mongol khanates embraced Islam except for the Yuan Dynasty of China who practiced Buddhism. The Mongols who stayed in their homeland remained as worshipers of Tengri, while others remained as Christians or Buddhists.

References:
Picture By Rashid-al-Din Hamadani – Cropped from File:HulaguAndDokuzKathun.JPG, Public Domain, Link
Hodgson, Marshall G. S. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.
Roberts, J. M., and Odd Arne. Westad. The History of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Posted on March 14, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Caliphate at Baghdad Destroyed 1258

The Abbasid caliphate that thrived in Baghdad for three-hundred years was destroyed by the Mongols led by Hulagu Khan in 1258 which is where it is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History. Many people were killed during the Siege of Baghdad, and it took several years before the city recovered.

The Muslim World

The Abbasid Caliphate was one of the dynasties that ruled Western Asia in the Medieval Period. It thrived between the eighth and tenth centuries. Its influence faded in AD 946 after a Persian general rose to power. The Abbasid royal family and its rulers still existed, but they became puppets under the Persian rulers of the Persian Buyid Dynasty.

The Muslim world then split into different independent caliphates and emirates in the Medieval Period. Al-Andalus (Spain) stayed under the Umayyad rulers but it later split into many kingdoms called Taifas. Meanwhile, some parts of Syria, the Levant, and Egypt were ruled by the Fatimid dynasty. The Samanid, Safavid, and Hamdanid dynasties also took large parts of the Abbasid territories and ruled them independently.

Other enemies of the Abbasid caliphate rose later on. During the eleventh century, the Turkic dynasties of the Ghaznavid and Seljuk rose in Central and Western Asia. The fierce Seljuks first defeated the Ghaznavids, and they later crossed the Oxus River (Amu Darya) to conquer Iraq. They removed the Buyids from power in Baghdad but kept the Abbasid caliph on the throne as their own puppet. They also conquered Syria and some parts of Palestine. The Seljuks later turned north and took away a big part of Asia Minor from the Byzantine Empire to set up the Sultanate of Rum.

The city of Baghdad had withstood sieges and civil wars over the years. But nothing prepared its people and the Abbasid caliphate for the arrival of the fierce Asian warriors in the middle of the thirteenth century: the Mongols.

The Mongols

The Mongols first rose as different groups of nomadic peoples in the first century AD. They lived on the northern borders of the Han empire. They later influenced the Sui and Tang Dynasties of China. The Mongolic empire of the Khitan Liao crumbled under the Jin Dynasty of the Jurchen people in the 1190s. Because of this, their people were scattered in the area for many years. A Mongol warrior named Temujin rose around this time to become his people’s khan (supreme leader or king). He later united the different Mongol tribes under his rule as khagan (king of kings).

Temujin was later renamed as Genghis Khan (Chinggis Khan) or ‘universal lord’ after he led the Mongols in the conquest of Central Asia and northern China. In 1218, he led his soldiers into present-day Uzbekistan and northern Iran. He then sent envoys to the ruler of Iran to establish trade with them. But the Muslim ruler made a huge mistake after he accused the Mongols envoys as spies and had them killed. In his anger, Genghis Khan ordered his men to sack the Central Asian cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, and others in Transoxiana. It was followed later by the fall of Persia into Mongol hands.

The peoples of Central Asia knew that it was useless to fight, so they surrendered to Mongols instead. Genghis Khan then conquered Georgia and southern Russia but he died in 1227 before his army could enter Europe. His son Ogedei became the new khan, and he made Kiev a tributary. They also pushed into Poland and Hungary, as well as the borders of Germany and Austria in the years that followed.

The Siege of Baghdad

Ogedei died in 1241 and the Mongol leaders returned to Asia to elect a new leader. The greatest Mongol Khan, Mongke, rose in 1251. Many of his battles were fought in Muslim-held lands in Asia. He defeated the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and later ordered his brother Hulagu Khan to attack the city of Baghdad. Before the expedition, Mongke Khan told Hulagu to demand the submission of the Abbasid caliph al-Musta’sim. But if the caliph refused to submit, the khan gave Hulagu his permission to destroy Baghdad. Hulagu led as much as 150,000 Mongol soldiers into Iraq in 1258. Many Christian, Chinese, Persian, and some Turkic soldiers also helped the Mongols in this battle.

When Hulagu arrived near Baghdad, he immediately demanded al-Musta’sim to submit to Mongke Khan. The Abbasid caliph refused because his chief minister told him that the Abbasid army could easily defeat the Mongols. His refusal angered Hulagu, and he ordered the Mongol army to besiege Baghdad on January 29, 1258. The Mongol army immediately broke down the city walls. When he saw that they had no chance of winning against the Mongols, al-Musta’sim tried to negotiate with Hulagu. The Mongol leader did not accept his offer. The city surrendered on the 10th of February 1258. The Mongols entered Baghdad three days later and killed many people in the city.

Al-Musta’sim was the last of the Abbasid caliphs after he and the noblemen were killed by the Mongols. Baghdad was destroyed in 1258. Those who survived the massacre fled the city. It would take many years before Baghdad rose once again.

References:
Picture By unknown / (of the reproduction) National Palace Museum in Taipei – Dschingis Khan und seine Erben (exhibition catalogue), München 2005, p. 304, Public Domain, Link
Fattah, Hala Mundhir, and Frank Caso. A Brief History of Iraq. New York, NY: Checkmark Books, 2009.
Marozzi, Justin. Baghdad: City of Peace, City of Blood–A History in Thirteen Centuries. Boston, MA: Da Capo Press, a Member of the Perseus Books Group, 2014.
Roberts, J. M., and Odd Arne. Westad. The History of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.