Kat Cendana – Page 19 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on March 15, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mongols Embrace Islam

The Mongols practiced shamanism in their homeland, but they were also tolerant of other religions. In fact, many of them practiced Nestorian Christianity, Buddhism, and Taoism in the past. The great Genghis Khan’s conquest of Central Asia and Iran opened the door for their conversion to Islam. The Mongols later embraced Islam when they pushed further into Western Asia. Their conversion to Islam is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History during 1235 AD.

From Shamanism to Islam

The Mongols (just like other Turkic peoples) believed in and worshipped the Sky God Tengri. They believed that their Khan (supreme leader or king) was Tengri’s representative on earth. The Mongol khans were tolerant of people who practiced other religions, but they also demanded respect from those that they ruled.

Nestorian Christianity and Tibetan Buddhism had arrived in Mongolia many years before. The Franciscan missionary William of Rubruck himself visited the Mongolian capital in 1254. He saw churches and temples in the city. The Mongols would later convert to Islam after they conquered a large part of Central and Western Asia.

mongols_convert_to_islam — “Hulagu Khan”

In 1258, a large army led by Hulagu Khan marched into Baghdad and demanded the submission of the Abbasid caliph al-Musta’sim. He refused to submit, and it resulted in the disastrous Siege of Baghdad in 1258. Many of Baghdad’s people were killed in the siege, and from then on, the Mongols ruled a large part of West Asia. When Hulagu died, the Ilkhans (subordinate khans) took over and ruled Persia. Meanwhile, two other Mongol khanates such as the Golden Horde and the White Horde ruled other areas.

Berke, Genghis Khan’s grandson, was said to be the first of the Mongol rulers who converted to Islam. Another Ilkhan Mongol ruler named Ghazan converted to Islam in 1295. All Ilkhan rulers of Persia from then on were Muslims. Ghazan conquered Aleppo four years later, but they were defeated by the Mamluks in Syria during 1303.

Relations between the Mongols and the Muslims improved when the Mongols of the Golden Horde converted to Islam with the help of the Mamluk ruler. Some of them also travelled to Egypt in the early years of the fourteenth century and converted to Islam. Later on, all three of the Mongol khanates embraced Islam except for the Yuan Dynasty of China who practiced Buddhism. The Mongols who stayed in their homeland remained as worshipers of Tengri, while others remained as Christians or Buddhists.

References:
Picture By Rashid-al-Din Hamadani – Cropped from File:HulaguAndDokuzKathun.JPG, Public Domain, Link
Hodgson, Marshall G. S. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.
Roberts, J. M., and Odd Arne. Westad. The History of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Posted on March 14, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Caliphate at Baghdad Destroyed 1258

The Abbasid caliphate that thrived in Baghdad for three-hundred years was destroyed by the Mongols led by Hulagu Khan in 1258 which is where it is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History. Many people were killed during the Siege of Baghdad, and it took several years before the city recovered.

The Muslim World

The Abbasid Caliphate was one of the dynasties that ruled Western Asia in the Medieval Period. It thrived between the eighth and tenth centuries. Its influence faded in AD 946 after a Persian general rose to power. The Abbasid royal family and its rulers still existed, but they became puppets under the Persian rulers of the Persian Buyid Dynasty.

The Muslim world then split into different independent caliphates and emirates in the Medieval Period. Al-Andalus (Spain) stayed under the Umayyad rulers but it later split into many kingdoms called Taifas. Meanwhile, some parts of Syria, the Levant, and Egypt were ruled by the Fatimid dynasty. The Samanid, Safavid, and Hamdanid dynasties also took large parts of the Abbasid territories and ruled them independently.

Other enemies of the Abbasid caliphate rose later on. During the eleventh century, the Turkic dynasties of the Ghaznavid and Seljuk rose in Central and Western Asia. The fierce Seljuks first defeated the Ghaznavids, and they later crossed the Oxus River (Amu Darya) to conquer Iraq. They removed the Buyids from power in Baghdad but kept the Abbasid caliph on the throne as their own puppet. They also conquered Syria and some parts of Palestine. The Seljuks later turned north and took away a big part of Asia Minor from the Byzantine Empire to set up the Sultanate of Rum.

The city of Baghdad had withstood sieges and civil wars over the years. But nothing prepared its people and the Abbasid caliphate for the arrival of the fierce Asian warriors in the middle of the thirteenth century: the Mongols.

The Mongols

The Mongols first rose as different groups of nomadic peoples in the first century AD. They lived on the northern borders of the Han empire. They later influenced the Sui and Tang Dynasties of China. The Mongolic empire of the Khitan Liao crumbled under the Jin Dynasty of the Jurchen people in the 1190s. Because of this, their people were scattered in the area for many years. A Mongol warrior named Temujin rose around this time to become his people’s khan (supreme leader or king). He later united the different Mongol tribes under his rule as khagan (king of kings).

Temujin was later renamed as Genghis Khan (Chinggis Khan) or ‘universal lord’ after he led the Mongols in the conquest of Central Asia and northern China. In 1218, he led his soldiers into present-day Uzbekistan and northern Iran. He then sent envoys to the ruler of Iran to establish trade with them. But the Muslim ruler made a huge mistake after he accused the Mongols envoys as spies and had them killed. In his anger, Genghis Khan ordered his men to sack the Central Asian cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, and others in Transoxiana. It was followed later by the fall of Persia into Mongol hands.

The peoples of Central Asia knew that it was useless to fight, so they surrendered to Mongols instead. Genghis Khan then conquered Georgia and southern Russia but he died in 1227 before his army could enter Europe. His son Ogedei became the new khan, and he made Kiev a tributary. They also pushed into Poland and Hungary, as well as the borders of Germany and Austria in the years that followed.

The Siege of Baghdad

Ogedei died in 1241 and the Mongol leaders returned to Asia to elect a new leader. The greatest Mongol Khan, Mongke, rose in 1251. Many of his battles were fought in Muslim-held lands in Asia. He defeated the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and later ordered his brother Hulagu Khan to attack the city of Baghdad. Before the expedition, Mongke Khan told Hulagu to demand the submission of the Abbasid caliph al-Musta’sim. But if the caliph refused to submit, the khan gave Hulagu his permission to destroy Baghdad. Hulagu led as much as 150,000 Mongol soldiers into Iraq in 1258. Many Christian, Chinese, Persian, and some Turkic soldiers also helped the Mongols in this battle.

When Hulagu arrived near Baghdad, he immediately demanded al-Musta’sim to submit to Mongke Khan. The Abbasid caliph refused because his chief minister told him that the Abbasid army could easily defeat the Mongols. His refusal angered Hulagu, and he ordered the Mongol army to besiege Baghdad on January 29, 1258. The Mongol army immediately broke down the city walls. When he saw that they had no chance of winning against the Mongols, al-Musta’sim tried to negotiate with Hulagu. The Mongol leader did not accept his offer. The city surrendered on the 10th of February 1258. The Mongols entered Baghdad three days later and killed many people in the city.

Al-Musta’sim was the last of the Abbasid caliphs after he and the noblemen were killed by the Mongols. Baghdad was destroyed in 1258. Those who survived the massacre fled the city. It would take many years before Baghdad rose once again.

References:
Picture By unknown / (of the reproduction) National Palace Museum in Taipei – Dschingis Khan und seine Erben (exhibition catalogue), München 2005, p. 304, Public Domain, Link
Fattah, Hala Mundhir, and Frank Caso. A Brief History of Iraq. New York, NY: Checkmark Books, 2009.
Marozzi, Justin. Baghdad: City of Peace, City of Blood–A History in Thirteen Centuries. Boston, MA: Da Capo Press, a Member of the Perseus Books Group, 2014.
Roberts, J. M., and Odd Arne. Westad. The History of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Posted on March 13, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Maya Revival Following the Collapse of Chichen Itza

During the eleventh century, many of the Maya city-states in Mesoamerica fell apart. But the Maya experienced a brief revival in 1250 following the collapse of Chichen Itza. The revival would be brief as the great Maya civilization completely crumbled in the fourteenth century until the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. The Mayan revival following the collapse of Chichen Itza is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History during 1250 AD.

The Collapse of Chichen Itza

The Maya city of Chichen Itza was built around AD 800. It grew until it became the most powerful force in the northern Yucatan. At its peak, Chichen Itza ruled over thousands of people. It was regarded as the largest of all Maya cities. Its military captured other cities and the tribute that these cities paid made Chichen Itza very rich. The city was a popular pilgrimage site because of its temples and its sacred pool. The sea trade centered in the nearby Isla Cerritos also made it very wealthy. Its influence extended as far east as Nohmul in present-day Belize and south into Seibal in Guatemala.

Around 1050, the central Mexican city of Tula was destroyed and the Toltec people who lived in it fled from their homes. Some went south, while others later ventured north to the Yucatan Peninsula and invaded the city of Chichen Itza. Stone reliefs in Chichen Itza showed the violence with which the Toltecs conquered the city. The Toltecs celebrated their victory with the construction of a tzompantli (skull rack), Chac Mool, and Temple of the Warriors. The city continued to reign until it was conquered by Mayapan, but by then it was not as important as it once was.

The Rise of Mayapan and Brief Maya Revival

The city of Chichen Itza continued to exist after it was conquered by the Toltecs, but it was not as influential as it once was. The rulers of Chichen Itza also built an alliance with the rulers of Uxmal and Mayapan in the years that followed. War later broke out between the allied cities and the city of Izamal after its ruler kidnapped the wife of the king of Chichen Itza. King Hunak Keel of Mayapan later turned on his former allies and conquered Chichen Itza. Mexican mercenaries and the people of Izamal also helped him destroy the great Maya city.

Because of this victory, Mayapan became the most powerful Maya state in the Yucatan Peninsula. A local noble family called the Cocom also emerged as powerful rulers of Mayapan for the next two hundred years. Mexican mercenaries and Maya priests helped the Cocom family impose peace and order. The people of Mayapan traded with neighboring Belize, Honduras, and central Mexico which added to their wealth. The Cocom family continued to rule until they were overthrown by the Xiu noble family in 1440.

References:
Picture By Bruno Girin – Flickr, CC BY-SA 2.0, Link
Demarest, Arthur Andrew. Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Sharer, Robert J., and Loa P. Traxler. The Ancient Maya. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.
“THE HUNAC CEEL EPISODE.” Chilam Balam: Appendices: Appendix C. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.

Posted on March 10, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Chimu People Expand in Peru

The Chimu people of Peru expanded their territory starting around 1250 after they conquered neighboring states, such as those in the Lambayeque and Casma Valleys. They were still expanding when the Incas rose to power and took what the Chimu empire had conquered years before. The Chimu’s expansion in Peru is recorded on the Biblical Timeline with World History during 1250 AD.

The Legend of the Chimu People

The Chimu people claimed that their ancestors sailed to present-day Peru from the north by means of rafts. Eleven rulers succeeded their first king when he died. This type of leadership continued until another king rose to rule the kingdom alone. They inherited the territory and culture of the Moche Empire which had crumbled around AD 700.

They settled near the irrigated fields of the valley which allowed them to grow food and feed their people. The small settlement eventually grew into a city which they called Chan Chan. The Chimu city became so magnificent that it contained as much as ten palace complexes and five pyramids which they used for rituals.

Expansion

The Chimu people started to build road networks which allowed them to move their troops around their territories easily. These roads also allowed them to conquer neighboring kingdoms starting around 1250. The Chimu conquered the Casma Valley in the south, and in 1350, they invaded the Lambayeque Valley (Sican culture) in the north. The Chimu rulers allowed each conquered territory to be governed by local leaders who answered directly to them and used captive peoples as farm workers. The Chimu Empire continued to expand until they were conquered by the powerful Incas in 1470.

References:
Picture By Håkan Svensson – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, Link
Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001.
Cremin, Aedeen. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Richmond Hill, Ont.: Firefly Books, 2012.
Moore, Jerry D. A Prehistory of South America: Ancient Cultural Diversity on the Least Known Continent. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2014.
O’Brien, Patrick. Atlas of World History. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Tellier, Luc-Normand. Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective. Québec: Presses De L’Université Du Québec, 2009.

Posted on March 9, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Cliff-Fewkes Canyon, Colorado, High Rises and Kivas at

Around 1150, the ancient Puebloans (Anasazi) moved down from the mesa tops and started to carve their homes on the cliff sides. Many of these cliff dwellings were constructed between 1200 and 1250. The construction of these magnificent houses and kivas are chronicled on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History around this period. Some of these magnificent cliff dwellings can be found in the Cliff-Fewkes Canyon at present-day Mesa Verde National Park. At its height, it was the home to 33 separate cliff dwellings with more than 500 rooms and around 60 kivas. Many of the rooms were used as dwellings while others were used as storage areas.

Cliff Villages and High Rise Residential Areas

The largest of the villages that were constructed within the Cliff-Fewkes Canyon at Mesa Verde was the Cliff Palace. It had around 220 rooms and 23 kivas. The village probably housed around 250 to 350 inhabitants, and also featured a round tower and two to four-story buildings—one of which showed remnants of impressive colorful wall paintings.

Another large village called the Sunset House had 30 rooms and four kivas carved out a ledge. This village was accessible via trails near the Cliff Palace and Little Long House. Other cliff dwellings include the Mummy House with 12 rooms and two kivas, Oak Tree House with 55 living rooms and six kivas, and the New Fire House which was built on two ledges. The New Fire House had 20 residential rooms on the top ledge, three kivas, and a number of dwellings on the lower ledge.

Other cliff dwellings that were built on the nearby Navajo Canyon include the Square Tower House, Little Long House, and other smaller structures. The Square Tower House was made up of 70 residential rooms plus seven kivas and was named after the square four-story building on the site. The Little Long House was located northwest of the Square Tower House.

Kivas

A structure called the Sun Temple was built with two layers of D-shaped walls separated by compartments and contained two kivas inside. It stood side by side with an extension which contained several compartments, a kiva, and a circular area which was constructed as the base of a tower. The roof of the Sun Temple was long gone, and another tower of unknown purposes stood nearby.

A kiva called the Fire Temple, meanwhile, was carved 100 feet below the Fewkes Canyon and has an unconventional rectangular shape. It was used for rituals and other religious ceremonies. Its location was near a source of water that was an indication of its religious importance to the Ancient Puebloans.

References:
Picture By Rationalobserver – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Link
Peregrine, Peter N., and Melvin Ember, eds. Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 6: North America. Boston, MA: Springer US, 2001.
Rohn, Arthur H., and William M. Ferguson. Puebloan Ruins of the Southwest. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006.

Posted on March 8, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — 1 Comment

Incas in the Peruvian City of Cuzco

Apart from the famed Machu Picchu, the ancient Peruvian city of Cuzco was the Incas’ most important center. Cuzco was the cradle of Inca civilization. They started to settle this great city around the twelfth century. The Inca migration to the city of Cuzco appeared on the Bible Timeline Poster withWorld History around AD 1200.

Origin of the Incas

The Incas had two origin stories. Both stories featured the mythical sibling-couple Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo. In the Pacariqtambo Legend and Lake Titicaca Legend, the Inca king Manco Capac and Inca Queen Mama Ocllo were created by the sun god Inti (the creator god also Viracocha played a part in the creation of the couple). In the first legend, the couple was created in and emerged from one of the three caves in a place called Pacariqtambo which, according to tradition, was said to be located 33 kilometers from the great Inca city of Cuzco.

The second legend, meanwhile, asserted that the couple was created in the Lake Titicaca region of Peru and Bolivia. In both legends, they were told to go and civilize the world. Manco Capac was given a golden staff which he used along the way to test whether they had arrived in their promised land. The same golden staff sank on the ground when they arrived in the Cuzco Valley.

Cuzco

The word “Cuzco” was taken from the Aymara and Quechua word “Qusqu” which was derived from the phrase qusqu wanka or Rock of the Owl (in reference to the Ayar siblings which included the Inca ancestors of Mama Ocllo and Manco Capac). The Cuzco Valley region was considered as the cradle of the Inca civilization. According to tradition, Manco Capac taught the people who settled there the science of agriculture, while Mama Ocllo taught the women the art of spinning and weaving. The small community gradually grew until the first Inca people extended their influence beyond the valley and into the regions inhabited by other tribes.

inca_city — “Although the Inca did not have moderns tools, each stone was cut so precisely that it is impossible to slip a knife between each heavy slab.”

The modern city of Cuzco is nestled in a valley located on an elevated portion of the plateau. It is bounded by mountains which, in the past, served as natural defensive walls against marauding tribes. Despite the arid surroundings, the city is fed by rivers that run from the mountains and into the valley. According to early Spanish chroniclers, the pre-Columbian city of Cuzco had long and narrow streets lined with low houses that were made of clay and reeds. Magnificent royal palaces and plazas dotted the ancient city. It was home to the Inca’s holiest place, the Temple of the Sun, where other tribes gathered together after a long journey.

The city was heavily fortified with defensive walls and towers that were made up of heavy blocks of stones. What made these structures amazing (even for the Spanish conquistadores) was that the stones were quarried outside of Cuzco, and were transported to the city without the aid of draft animals, such as llamas and donkeys. Although the Inca did not have moderns tools, each stone was cut so precisely that it is impossible to slip a knife between each heavy slab. The Inca structures still exist today—a testament to the Inca masons’ outstanding skills and their people’s ingenuity.

References:
Picture By No machine-readable author provided. Xauxa assumed (based on copyright claims). – No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims)., CC BY 2.5, Link
“City of Cuzco.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed October 25, 2016. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/273.
Cremin, Aedeen. The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2007.
Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Peru: With A Preliminary View of the Civilization of the Incas. London: J.B. Lippincott &, 1833.

Posted on March 7, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Cahokia in North America

In 1811, a lawyer and amateur historian named Henry Brackenridge “discovered” the Cahokia mounds and wrote a detailed account of the place to a friend, then president Thomas Jefferson. His discovery, however, was largely ignored by the American public even after his accounts of the site were published in newspapers. Interest for it was only revived in the second half of the twentieth century. Over the years, many of the Cahokia mounds failed to survive the ravages of time after these were flattened to give way to farms, houses, and shops. Luckily, a sizable number of these mounds still exist to provide valuable information about the place called Cahokia, as well as the people who once lived there. Cahokia is recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History around 1200 AD.

History

Cahokia was an ancient Mississippian culture and place that flourished between 1000 and 1400 along the banks of the Mississippi River near present-day Collinsville, Illinois and St. Louis, Missouri. It started as a small agricultural community which depended on the cultivation of corn. It grew over the years to become the largest trade center in the northeastern part of present-day United States. Henry Brackenridge estimated that at its peak, Cahokia was home to around 10,000 to 12,000 people. Recent research concluded that the population ranged from anywhere between 10,000 and 30,000, which meant that Cahokia was one of the largest prehistoric communities in North America. Religious leaders, secular rulers, merchants, farmers and hunters made up the highly organized and complex Cahokian society.

Cahokian Mounds

The hallmark of the Mississippian Culture, particularly in Cahokia, was the presence of the enormous earth mounds. Based on the size of the earthworks built on the site, the Cahokia community possessed a large labor force that built these massive mounds. These were of different shapes and sizes. Some of the most common were the platform mounds. These angled earthworks were usually square or rectangular at the base and featured a flat top where storehouses, temples, royal palaces, or charnel houses once stood.

The height and size of the platform mound were determined by the status of its occupant, so that the higher the mound, the higher the occupant’s status was in society. The largest and tallest of these was the Monks Mound which was named after the Trappist Monks who occupied it in the 19th century. It was constructed at the center of the archeological site as a four-leveled terrace. A palisade or defensive wall enclosed the Monks Mound as well as the other sizable mounds within Cahokia proper (the center of the city). This meant that the Monks Mound was possibly the site of a royal residence. Smaller platform mounds that were occupied by farmers, tradesmen, and merchants surrounded the palisade.

Cone-shaped and ridge-top (hayrick) mounds were also present in Cahokia. The two other types of mounds served different purposes. Cone-shaped mounds had circular bases with softly rounded tops. These often served as burial mounds. Ridge-top mounds featured rectangular bases that rose to a narrow ridge at the top and served as markers for the communities and sometimes, burials grounds.

References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monks_Mound#/media/File:Monks_Mound_in_July.JPG
Fowler, Melvin L. The Cahokia Atlas: A Historical Atlas of Cahokia Archaeology. Urbana, IL: Illinois Transportation Archeological Research Program, University of Illinois, 1997.
Hodges, Glenn. “America’s Forgotten City.” National Geographic Magazine – NGM.com. January 2011. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/2011/01/cahokia/hodges-text.
The Mound Builders: The Greatest Monument of Prehistoric Man: Cahokia or Monks Mound. 1913.

Posted on March 6, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Flat-Topped Mound Bases for Temples in the Mississippi River Area, End of First Period

More than a thousand years ago, a distinct North American culture flourished on the banks of the Mississippi River. This culture was named after the great river which became the lifeline of the people who lived near its banks. It was also the hallmark of the Mississippian culture where the massive earth monuments or mounds were left behind. The mysterious decline of the Mississippian Culture and their abandonment of the flat-topped mound bases for temples appeared on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History in AD 1190.

Mississippian Culture’s Flat-Topped Mounds

The ancient Mississippians built mounds of different sizes and shapes. Some of the most striking and intriguing were the flat-topped platform mounds. These massive earthworks were usually quadrilateral and circular in shape and were made up of rocks, log mantles, clay, and soil. The largest of these is the Monk’s Mound at Cahokia which covered an area of about six hectares (around 15 acres) at the base and reached a height of up to 30 meters (around 98 feet). Most were built around AD 800 and beyond until the Mississippian culture faded around the twelfth century.

flat_topped_mounds_end_of — “Monks Mound”

Flat-topped mounds primarily served as bases for temples and mortuary shrines. They were also used as platforms for tribal council meetings and as ceremonial stages. In rare instances, the mounds were used as bases for houses of tribal and religious leaders. The mounds were enlarged over the years as tribal chieftains died and were replaced by another. The areas around the flat-topped platform mounds were restricted to the general population and protected by defensive walls or palisades.

Decline

The end of the construction of these flat-topped mounds came around the twelfth century when the Mississippian Culture underwent a rapid decline. It is possible that over-hunting and deforestation which were worsened by climate change and erosion played a part in the disappearance of the native Mississippians. The invasion of other tribes and the onset of diseases were also possible causes for the collapse of the Mississippian culture. Whatever the reason, the Mississippian flat-topped mounds were largely abandoned when the Europeans arrived in the sixteenth century.

References:
Picture By Skubasteve834 – EN.Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, Link
“An Introduction to North America’s Native People: Mississippian Period.” NATIVE PEOPLES of NORTH AMERICA. Accessed October 25, 2016. http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/mississ.html.
Murphree, Daniel S. Native America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2012.
Young, Biloine W., and Melvin L. Fowler. Cahokia, The Great Native American Metropolis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000.

Posted on March 3, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Jerusalem Taken from the Christians by Saladin

Jerusalem was taken from the city’s Christians rulers by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin in 1187 according to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History. The defeat of the Christian rulers in the Battle of Hattin only hastened the fall of Jerusalem. News of Jerusalem’s loss later pushed the rulers of Europe to launch the Third Crusade.

The Rise of Saladin

The great Muslim ruler Saladin was born Yusuf ibn Najm al-Din Ayyub Salah al-Din. He was one of the most unusual Muslim rulers as he was not an Arab, a Turk, or a Persian. His Kurdish family migrated from Dvin in Armenia and into Tikrit (present-day Iraq) before he was born. His father, Najm al-Din Ayyub, was the warden of Tikrit who saved Zengi, the Turkish ruler of Mosul, when he escaped from the city. His family was later forced to leave Tikrit when his uncle, Shirkuh, killed a man.

Saladin was born during the night that they left Tikrit in 1139. They traveled to Mosul where Zengi (now back as the city’s ruler) welcomed them in payment for his debt. Nur ad-Din, Zengi’s son, succeeded his father several years later. Saladin grew up during a time when European Crusaders flowed into the Holy Land and conquered some territories. He, along with his uncle, served Nur ad-Din after he rose as ruler of Mosul.

In Jerusalem, King Baldwin III died and was succeeded by his younger brother Amalric I in 1163. Eager to enlarge his territory, Amalric attacked Fatimid Egypt which, by that time, had weakened. The more powerful vizier Shawar asked for Nur ad-Din’s help to defend Egypt from Amalric. Nur ad-Din sent Turkish troops he needed and they were led by Shirkuh and his young nephew, Saladin. Together with the Fatimid troops, they defeated Amalric’s soldiers and drove them back to Jerusalem.

Saladin in Egypt and the Collapse of the Fatimid Dynasty

But Shirkuh was an ambitious man, and he wanted Egypt for himself. Shawar quickly realized that the alliance was a mistake, so he offered an alliance to Amalric. Together, they attacked and drove out Shirkuh, Saladin, and the Turkish troops out of Egypt. Shirkuh, however, never forgot about Egypt and his dreams of conquering it. He returned to Egypt with Saladin and the Turkish troops to defeate their enemies in 1167. Shawar, meanwhile, knew that he would not last in his position, so he went to Shirkuh to bargain with him in 1169. Saladin and his men stopped him when he was near the camp, took him somewhere else, and killed him.

Shirkuh ruled Egypt and controlled the Fatimid caliph al-Adid from then on. He did not get to enjoy his new status for long as he died two months later. The rule of Egypt passed to Saladin, after his death. Seven months after he rose as the ruler of Egypt, Saladin faced the threat of a combined Crusader and Byzantine force. He easily toppled this alliance as the Crusaders and the Byzantines were poorly equipped and often fought against each other. He drove their army back to the Holy Land and returned to Egypt to rule on Nur ad-Din’s behalf.

In 1171, Nur ad-Din ordered Saladin to remove the young Fatimid ruler al-Adid so that Egypt would be in Turkish hands. Saladin thought that this was not a good idea at that time but later changed his mind. He finally followed Nur ad-Din’s instruction just as when the caliph became so ill. Caliph al-Adid died not knowing that he was removed from his position and that he was the last of the Fatimids to rule Egypt.

Saladin ruled Egypt from then on. He gradually became so powerful that he began to rule it without paying heed to Nur ad-Din’s orders. For example, he attacked the Crusader castle of Montreal from Egypt while Nur ad-Din closed in on the same castle from the north. He bowed out of this battle and returned to Egypt. He lost Nur ad-Din’s trust because of this, and his former master started his plans to remove Saladin from Egypt. But the Turkish ruler died of throat infection before he could carry out his plans in 1174. His young son, Al-Salih Ismail, was left to rule his kingdom.

Saladin knew this was his chance to wrest the Holy Land and Syria for himself, so he went to Damascus and presented himself as the boy’s guardian. He also married Nur ad-Din’s widow and the young Al-Salih conveniently died in 1181. With the Turkish rulers out of the way, Saladin was now free to rule Syria and Egypt.

Division in the Holy Land

Meanwhile in Jerusalem, Baldwin IV the Leper succeeded his father Amalric II as King of Jerusalem. As Baldwin was just a child when his father died, Miles of Plancy stepped up to become his regent. Raymond III of Tripoli and other noblemen challenged his claim as regent. When Miles was killed, his widow married the Lord of Oultrejourdain called Reynald of Chatillon. Reynald had a history of being an all-around troublemaker. His antics would help bring about the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin.

With Miles of Plancy dead, Raymond III of Tripoli was free to arrange the marriage of Baldwin IV’s sister Sybilla to another nobleman. The couple had a son which they named as Baldwin V, but Sybilla’s new husband also died. Their son was later named as his uncle Baldwin IV’s co-ruler, while his mother married another nobleman named Guy of Lusignan.

Between 1177 and 1178, Saladin wore down Baldwin IV’s attempts to strengthen his kingdom. In 1182, Reynald of Chatillon led a raid on a caravan bound for Syria. It angered Saladin as the caravan was under his protection. He decided to attack the Crusader states in the same year. Reynald provoked Saladin once again when he announced his plans of invading Mecca via the Red Sea. Saladin attacked them for the second time in 1183 because of this.

King Baldwin IV knew that he needed to face Saladin in battle. The problem was that he had leprosy. So he allowed his new brother-in-law, Guy of Lusignan, to lead his army into battle. Guy replaced Raymond III of Tripoli as regent, but he and his army did not confront Saladin in battle—a move which made him unpopular in Jerusalem. Baldwin IV removed his brother-in-law as regent and brought back Raymond III of Tripoli. He also announced that his nephew, Baldwin V, would succeed him as king. But the young boy died in 1185, followed by the king a year later.

The throne of Jerusalem was vacant, and both Raymond and Guy fought to occupy it. Guy, Sybilla, and the ever-present Reynald of Chatillon later staged a coup to remove Raymond III as ruler of Jerusalem. Raymond was forced to seek an alliance with Saladin in hopes that he would get Jerusalem back. While he was negotiating with Saladin, however, Reynald of Chatillon raided another Syria-bound caravan. Saladin demanded payment for the damages. Reynald refused and even defied Guy who asked him to pay up.

Jerusalem_taken — “Dome of the Rock and West Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives”

The Battle of Hattin and the Fall of Jerusalem

Guy knew that this was the last straw for Saladin, so he sent his knights to make peace with Raymond. His strategy failed as Saladin’s men who lurked in Raymond’s territory killed the knights that he sent. In July of the same year, Saladin brought as much as 30,000 soldiers with him and besieged Raymond’s stronghold in Tiberias. Guy and his troops tried to attack Saladin in the Battle of Hattin, but infighting, lack of water, and the unbearable heat of the valley made it hard for them to win.

The Christian forces experienced a crushing defeat in Hattin, and all the noblemen were captured. Saladin treated the Christian noblemen with courtesy, and they were eventually set free. But he singled out Reynald of Chatillon whom he beheaded with his own sword. He also ordered his men to execute all Knight Templars and Hospitallers who joined the battle.

One by one, the cities of the Holy Land surrendered to Saladin’s army, and the refugees were forced to flee to Jerusalem. The holy city’s residents panicked when they heard that Saladin’s troops were headed their way, but Balian of Ibelin arrived and led the defense of the city. On the 20th of September 1187, Saladin and his warriors arrived outside the walls of Jerusalem. Although they were willing to fight, the residents knew that they were no match for the Muslim forces on the other side of the walls.

Balian was forced to negotiate with Saladin to save the city’s residents. Because of Balian’s efforts, Saladin agreed to let Jerusalem’s Christian residents leave the city unharmed. He accepted Jerusalem’s surrender and entered it in victory the same year. The Muslims then removed the cross from the Dome of the Rock. Once again, Jerusalem was in Muslim hands.

References:
Picture By बिप्लब आनन्द – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, Link
Gibb, H. A. R., Kātib Al-Iṣfahānī, ʻImād Al-Dīn Muḥammad Ibn Muḥammad, and Ibn Shaddād, Bahāʼ Al-Dīn Yūsuf Ibn Rāfiʻ. The Life of Saladin: From the Works of ʻImād Ad-Dīn and Bahāʼ Ad-Dīn. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.
Madden, Thomas F. Crusades: The Illustrated History. Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. of Michigan Press, 2004.
Nicolle, David, and Christa Hook. The Third Crusade 1191: Richard the Lionheart, Saladin and the Struggle for Jerusalem. Oxford: Osprey, 2006.

Posted on March 2, 2017February 28, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Toltecs Driven Out of Chichen Itza

Chichen Itza

Founded around 800 AD, the northern lowland Maya city of Chichen Itza continued to flourish even after its southern Maya neighbors had declined around 900 AD. At its peak, Chichen Itza was possibly the largest and densely populated Maya state. But the Maya domination of one of its magnificent cities ended when refugees from the destroyed Toltec city of Tula arrived at its fringes and saw an opportunity to take over. The Toltecs were later driven out of Chichen Itza during 1180 according to the Bible Timeline Chart with World History.

The Conquerors from Tula

The Toltecs occupied the great city of Tula for less than a century before they were driven out by mysterious forces. The city showed evidence of fire and widespread destruction because of internal strife. It was also possible that external threats, such as climate change and warfare brought the empire down. The Toltecs left the city in the eleventh century and dispersed in neighboring areas while others continued further south into the tropical areas of present-day Mexico. Those who migrated south traveled once again into the Yucatan Peninsula and conquered the great city of Chichen Itza.

The Toltec conquerors left behind traces of their violent domination of the Maya city. Reliefs that showed Toltec warriors besieging the city and violently taking captives were found in Chichen Itza. The Toltec also left behind one of the most distinct signs of their presence: the tzompantli or skull rack. The Toltec introduced the large-scale sacrifice of war captives in Chichen Itza. They commemorated their victory by building a large skull rack displayed on a platform (still intact and can be viewed). They later constructed several Chac Mool statues in Chichen Itza where they placed the hearts of sacrificial victims and hurled captives as human sacrifice in the Sacred Cenote (sacred pool which was the site of pilgrimage and worship during the Maya heyday).

The descendants of the Toltec conquerors who ruled Chichen Itza were later deposed by Hunac Ceel, the ruler of Mayapan, in the late twelfth century. The great Maya city was also largely abandoned during the 1200s, but pilgrims continued to visit the Sacred Cenote even after many of the Chichen Itza inhabitants fled the city.

toltec_chichen_itza — “Chichén Itzá Tzompantli”

References:
Picture By Anagoria – Own work, CC BY 3.0, Link
Evans, Susan Toby, and David L. Webster. Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia. London: Routledge, 2010.
Foster, Lynn V. Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World. New York: Facts on File, 2002.
Kowalski, Jeff Karl, and Cynthia Kristan-Graham. Twin Tollans: Chichén Itzá, Tula, and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library & Collection, 2007.
Morley, Sylvanus Griswold, and George W. Brainerd. The Ancient Maya. Stanford Cal.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1968.