Alphabetical Index to Bible Timeline – Page 3 – Amazing Bible Timeline with World History

Posted on January 25, 2018November 7, 2017 by Kat Cendana — 1 Comment

Inca City of Machu Picchu Built in Peru

The Inca city of Machu Picchu in Peru was built during the reign of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1438-1472). The royal city was built more than 2,400 meters above sea level between the Amazon Basin and the Andes mountains. Machu Picchu remains as one of the Incan masterpieces in engineering with its successful integration of urban planning and agriculture. More than 200 structures stand in this highland city which include royal palaces, temples, and houses. Machu Picchu was abandoned shortly after the death of the last Sapa Inca and the domination of the Spanish conquistadors. It was rediscovered in 1911 by American professor and explorer Hiram Bingham. These events are recorded on the Bible Timeline with World History during that time.

Hiram Bingham’s Great Peruvian Adventure

Hiram Bingham organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition.

In mid-1911, the Yale professor and explorer Hiram Bingham and four of his friends boarded a ship bound for Peru. His companions included the mountaineer Herman Tucker, Yale professor Harry Foote, Yale geographer Isaiah Bowman, and Bingham’s former student, Paul Lanius. Two of their companions, the Danish topographer Kai Hendriksen and Dr. William Erving, sailed to Peru before the rest of Bingham’s crew.

Bingham’s original goal was to climb Mount Coropuna and to search for Vitcos, the Inca’s so-called last capital. The professor met with Peru’s president upon his arrival in June 1911. The president was pleased with Bingham’s expedition, so he assigned a military escort for the crew. They stayed in Cuzco for a short time, and it was here that Bingham chanced upon an amazing discovery.

One day, Bingham met a rector of a local university. The rector remarked that a tavern owner told him that some Inca ruins could be found on a cliff above a bridge that linked the banks of the Urubamba River. He became curious after hearing the information, and he decided to confirm if the story was indeed true. They arrived near the tavern mentioned by the rector on July 23, 1911.

On the 24th of July, 1911, the crew came across a family of Peruvian farmers. The farmers were wary of the newcomers, but they allowed their son to guide Hiram Bingham and his crew to the Incan ruins. The group trekked on the mountainside until they came upon the iconic stone-faced terraces and granite houses of Machu Picchu. The sight captivated Hiram Bingham and his companions, and the rediscovery of the place became one of the biggest archeological finds of the 20th century.

The Incas and the Machu Picchu

During the 14th century, the Sapa Incas (rulers of the Inca people) went on a conquest spree. They subdued neighboring cities, and because of this, the number of people the Inca ruled also grew. The sixth Sapa Inca, Inca Roca, decided to build palaces for himself and his family. He enlisted the people they subdued for this task. He then commanded them to build irrigation canals and agricultural terraces to support the people who lived in the Cuzco valley.

The Inca conquest of the areas outside of Cuzco continued during the 15th century. Their conquest spread as far as the jungle areas of the Andes where the coca plant was cultivated. The royal city of Machu Picchu was built on one of the ridges in the area above the Urubamba River.

Peruvian historians point to Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (the ninth Inca) as the man behind Machu Picchu. Palaces for members of his family and temples were built during his time. Only a select few could enter the royal estate in the highland. Commoners who likely worked as farmers on the terraces were also allowed to live in Machu Picchu. The houses of the elite were built from finely cut stones quarried nearby and stacked on top of the other without the use of mortar. These houses were so finely made that most of the walls still stood when Hiram Bingham arrived in 1911. The commoners, meanwhile, lived in mud-brick houses that easily disintegrated as years passed.

Machu Picchu was abandoned by the Incas during the 16th century after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in 1532. Francisco Pizarro executed the last Sapa Inca, Atahualpa, in 1533. The Inca civilization fell, and the great city of Machu Picchu was abandoned after the death of the last Sapa Inca.

References:

Picutre by: Harris & Ewing, photographer – Library of Congress, Public Domain, Link

Bingham, Hiram. Lost City of the Incas: The Story of Machu Picchu and Its Builders. London: Phoenix, 2003.

Kops, Deborah. Machu Picchu. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2009.

“Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed February 01, 2017. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/274.

Posted on January 23, 2018November 7, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Cyprus Ceded to the Venetians

The House of Lusignan ruled Cyprus for 270 years before it was ceded to the Venetians in 1489. The first Lusignan king of Cyprus, Aimery, came to the Holy Land during the late 1170s. He rose to prominence during his time in the Holy Land and later inherited Cyprus from his brother, Guy. Aimery’s successors from the House of Lusignan ruled Cyprus until the reign of King James II the Bastard. The king’s marriage to a wealthy Venetian lady, his death, and the entry of cunning Venetian merchants led to the end of the rule of the House of Lusignan in Cyprus. These events are recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History during that time.

Beginnings: The House of Lusignan in the Holy Land and Cyprus

Aimery, the Lord of Lusignan, fled France after his participation in a botched rebellion against Henry II of England (as well as the Count of Anjou and Duke of Normandy). He arrived in Jerusalem around the late 1170s where he married Eschiva of Ibelin. She was the daughter of an influential nobleman who came to Jerusalem during the Crusades.

Aimery was promoted to Constable of Jerusalem in 1180. His younger brother, Guy of Lusignan, also married Sibylla, the Queen of Jerusalem in the same year. The brothers joined the Crusaders who fought in the ill-fated Battle of Hattin, and they were among the noblemen captured and released by Saladin.

Queen Sibylla died in 1190, and her death disqualified Guy of Lusignan from taking the throne of Jerusalem. The crown passed on to Isabella I of Jerusalem, but Guy received Cyprus as to make up for his loss. Guy ruled Cyprus briefly until his death in 1194. His brother, Aimery, succeeded him to the throne of Cyprus after he was elected by Guy’s vassals.

Aimery of Lusignan, the new lord of Cyprus, became more powerful when the King of Jerusalem died in 1197. He married the king’s widow, Isabella I, and ruled as king of Crusaders and Jerusalem. The House of Lusignan went on to rule Cyprus for the next 270 years until it was ceded to the Venetians.

Reversals: The Last Lusignan King of Cyprus

James II, the illegitimate son of King John I of Cyprus, was born around 1438-40. He was the son of John’s mistress Marietta of Patras and half-brother of the king’s legitimate daughter Charlotte. James was appointed as the archbishop of Nicosia at the young age of 16 because of his father’s influence. He fled Cyprus for Rhodes in 1457 after killing the king’s chamberlain. His father pardoned him soon after, and he was reinstated as an archbishop after this episode.

King John II died in 1458, and his daughter succeeded him to the throne. Civil war broke out when James challenged his half-sister’s right to rule. He kept Charlotte and her husband as prisoners in the Kyrenia Castle until they were able to flee for Rome in 1463. Her younger brother seized the throne soon after and ruled the island kingdom of Cyprus as King James II.

He traveled to wealthy Venice to seek some support for his tiny kingdom in 1468. While he was there, he married a Venetian woman from a wealthy family. Her name was Caterina Cornaro, and she traveled to Cyprus to claim the position of the queen in 1472. Their marriage was short-lived as James died only a few months after Caterina’s arrival in Cyprus. It was suspected that some powerful Venetians were involved in his mysterious death.

The young queen was pregnant at the time of her husband’s death, so she stood as regent for her son. The boy also died before he reached his first year, and the powerful Venetian merchants soon took over the administration of the islands. In 1489, the Venetians pressured Queen Caterina to give up her claim to the throne of Cyprus. Alone and powerless, she was forced to cede Cyprus to the Republic of Venice and step down as queen in 1489. The Venetians held Cyprus until the Ottoman Turks wrested the island from them in 1571.

References:

Picture by: Piri Reis – Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Hayk using CommonsHelper., Public Domain, Link

Dursteler, Eric. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. Leiden: Brill, 2013.

Edbury, P. W. The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191-1374. Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Setton, Kenneth M., Harry W. Hazard, and Norman P. Zacour. A History of the Crusades. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.

Posted on January 21, 2018November 7, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Songhai Empire, Fall of the

During the latter half of the 14th century, the Songhai state slowly eclipsed the Mali Empire. One by one, the Songhai seized neighboring territories until it, too, became an empire. It dominated a portion of northwestern Africa for the next 200 years. The Songhai Empire fell in 1591 after years of ineffective rule and the invasion of the Moroccans. These events are recorded on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History during that time.

The Rise of the Songhai State

The Songhai state owed its origins to the Do farmers, Gow hunters, and Sorko fishermen who occupied the southern banks of the Niger bend. These people came together and built their first town called Kukiya. During the 7th century AD, Berbers who fled persecution sought refuge in Kukiya. They were the ancestors of the Za Dynasty, and they succeeded in ruling Kukiya many years after their arrival.

During the 12th century, the Za Dynasty relocated the capital to the city of Gao. Its rulers controlled the area of Gao up to the Dendi region in the south. The state became wealthy after its rulers turned Gao into a major stop in the trans-Saharan trade. The Za Dynasty ruler Kossoi converted to Islam between 1009 and 1019, but the most of his people retained their native religion.

The Domination of the Mali Empire and the Rise of the Sonni Dynasty

Mathematics and astronomy manuscripts found in Timbuktu.

Between 1275 and 1300, the Mandinka army of the Mali Empire conquered the Songhai state and its territories. The Za king became a Mali Empire tributary, while Mandinka governors administered the territory on the Mansa’s behalf. Around 1324 or 1325, the famed Mansa Musa built a mosque in the Songhai city of Gao.

During the domination of the Mali Empire, some Za Dynasty princes fled from the Mandinka rulers and founded the Sonni Dynasty. It was probably based in Kukiya or in Gao itself, but it gradually eclipsed the Za Dynasty in power. Just as the Mali Empire was declining, the Sonni Dynasty started to emerge as a powerful force in Songhai areas.

It was during the reign of the great Sonni Ali that the Songhai state became an empire. Sonni Ali reigned from 1464 to 1492 and Muslim chroniclers considered him to be a tyrant. He conquered the ancient cities of Jenne, Macina, and Timbuktu during his reign. Sonni Ali was accused of using magic to terrify and conquer neighboring peoples. He also repressed the Muslim scholars of Timbuktu. The Songhai people, however, considered him as the greatest ruler after he conquered the Bariba, Mossi, and Dogon peoples.

During his reign, the Songhai Empire stretched from Dendi in the south to Gao in the north. It controlled the trans-Saharan trade which contributed to its prosperity. Sonni Ali died in 1492, and his son, Sonni Ber, succeeded him. A civil war ensued after Sonni Ber refused to convert to Islam. One of his father’s generals, Muhammad Ture, defeated Sonni Ber and seized the Songhai throne in 1493. He was a Soninke from the city of a Takrur in the former Ghana Empire. Muhammad Ture took the title of askiya and became the first of the Islamic rulers of the empire.

The Askiya Dynasty

Askiya Muhammad was considered to be a good Muslim ruler. He continued the expansion of the empire and was noted for his pilgrimage to Mecca. He appointed a kadi (judge) for each town and encouraged Islamic scholarship. The Songhai Empire became prosperous during his reign, and it was known as the empire’s golden age. The Askiya Dynasty’s capital at that time was at Tindirma near Timbuktu.

One of his sons overthrew Askiya Muhammad when he grew old and blind. Some of his sons then took turns in ruling the Songhai Empire after Askiya Muhammad’s deposition. The empire’s decline, however, also started during their reign. One of his sons, Askiya Ishaq I, reigned from 1539 to 1549. His reign was marked by a conflict with the Moroccans who owned the salt mines of Taghaza. The Moroccan sultan Muhammad al-Shaykh (al-Arak) asked Ishaq I to give up the salt mines, but the Songhai king attempted to intimidate the Moroccans by invading the Dara Valley.

The conflict continued during the reign of Ishaq I’s son, Askiya Dawud (1549-1582/83). The Moroccan sultan continued to press his claims to the salt mines, but it was temporarily solved when Askiya Dawud sent him large quantities of gold as payment. The Moroccans, however, were far from pacified. They invaded during the reign of Askiya Muhammad III. The king died in 1586, but his successor could not beat back the Moroccans after civil war ensued in the Songhai Empire. By 1591, the Songhai Empire had collapsed.

References:

Picture by: Unknown – EurAstro : Mission to Mali, Public Domain, Link

Conrad, David C. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009.

Ohaegbulam, Festus Ugboaja. Towards an Understanding of the African Experience from Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1990.

Netton, Ian Richard. The Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilization and Religion. London: Routledge, 2008.

Niane, Djibril Tamsir, and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. Africa From the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. University of California Press, 1997.

Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

Posted on January 19, 2018November 5, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Mali Empire, Decline of the

The Mali Empire rose as a powerful force in northwest Africa in the middle of the 13th-century. Its first king was the fierce warrior-prince Sundiata Keita (1235-1255). The empire reached its peak during the 13th-century and the early years of the 14th-century. However, the Mali Empire declined during the last years of the 14th-century when the neighboring Songhai state rose to prominence. These events are recorded on the Biblical Timeline with World History during that time.

From Sundiata Keita to Mansa Musa

The Mali Empire briefly declined after the death of its Lion Prince, Sundiata Keita, in AD 1255. The empire experienced a revival during the reign of Sakoura Mansa around 1285. His reign was marked by the conquests of neighboring cities, including the Gao region. He also subdued the Tuareg tribes and brought them under the direct control of the Mali Empire. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca but died on the way back home after being robbed in the Sahara.

The Mali Empire reached its height during the reign of Mansa Musa, which lasted from AD 1307 to 1337. His successors, however, became involved in court intrigues and squandered their empire’s wealth. The royal court of Mali was also divided into rival factions. By 1374, the divided royal family became puppets for various generals. Provincial governors, meanwhile, treated their domains like their own little kingdoms.

The Rise of the Mali Empire’s Powerful Neighbors

Mali terracotta horse figurine, dating between 13th-15th centuries.

The disunity inside the Mali Empire’s played a great part in its collapse during the 1400s. Its neighbors, from the Tuaregs to the Songhai, gradually chipped away at its territories while the empire weakened. The Berbers and Tuaregs were some of the first to wrest away a large part of the empire’s territory.

During the reign of Mansa Musa, some Berber tribes submitted to the Mali Empire. These tribes took advantage of the weakening of the royal power and started to rebel. The nomadic Tuaregs also started a series of raids against the Mali Empire. In 1433, they captured the cities of Timbuktu, Walata, Nema, and Gao from the empire. They briefly dominated the area until the rise of the Songhai Empire led by Sonni ‘Ali.

The Mossi people lived south of the Niger bend during the domination of the Mali Empire. The empire never really conquered the Mossi people, so they, too, took advantage of its weakness. The well-armed Mossi were skilled horsemen. They figured that they could make a living by raiding neighboring tribes, especially those under the rule of the Mali empire. The peasants who lived under the Mali Empire were helpless in the face of invasion. The Mossi raiders, meanwhile, became wealthy because of this, and they even raided as far west as the city of Walata.

Rise of the Songhai State

The rise of the Songhai Empire during the latter years of the 14th-century also played a part in the collapse of the Mali Empire. The Songhai was made up of different peoples including the Do, the Sorko, and the Gow. The Do people worked as farmers, while the Gow people were expert hunters. The strongest of these tribes was the Sorko, and they lived along the banks of the Niger river east of Timbuktu. They worked as fishermen, but their ability to construct war canoes and navigate the Niger river became their greatest strength. Because of their skills, they dominated the Niger river area.

By the 9th century, the three tribes became united, and together they formed the Songhai kingdom. Its capital was Kukiya, and its people traded with the Berber and Egyptian merchants who lived in the city of Gao. Because of the interaction between the Songhai and the Gao, the Songhai rulers eventually converted to Islam. They also made the city of Gao the capital of the Songhai kingdom.

The Mali Empire conquered a portion of the western region of Gao during its heyday. The decline of the Mali Empire during the 1400s eventually led to the rise of the Songhai Empire. The Songhai Empire became the most powerful state in the region during the reign of the Sonni Dynasty king Sonni ‘Ali between 1464 and 1492. He led the capture of Timbuktu from the Tuaregs, as well as the cities of Jenne and the territory of the Mossi people.

References:

Picture by: Franko Khoury [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Conrad, David C. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009.

Netton, Ian Richard. The Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilization and Religion. London: Routledge, 2008.

Niane, Djibril Tamsir, and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. Africa From the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. University of California Press, 1997.

Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

Posted on January 17, 2018November 4, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Swahili Cities Rise

The Swahili cities of East Africa rose between the 9th and 10th centuries. Some of the most important Swahili cities included Kilwa, Pemba, Zanzibar, and Mafia. The most prominent of these was the city of Kilwa, the capital of the kingdom of Zanj. The Shirazi Dynasty from Persia ruled the city of Kilwa during its height. The Swahili people traded with Arab, Persian, Indian, and Chinese merchants which made the kingdom very rich. At its peak, the Swahili kings’ influence even reached as far as the island of Madagascar. These events are recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World History during that time.

The People and Cities of the Eastern Coast

Swahili refers to the language spoken by the people who live mainly in modern Kenya and Tanzania. Swahili and variants of it are also spoken in Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda, and other Central East African countries. The Swahilis are Bantu-speaking people, but the language borrowed some words from Arabic after centuries of trade with Gulf caliphates and sultanates. The language and variants of it are also spoken by people in the Barawa (Brava) town of Somalia to the Zambezi region in modern Mozambique.

The northern Swahili coast is an arid area, but the landscape becomes progressively lush in the southern coast. The first humans who settled on the Swahili coast were hunters and gatherers. They later engaged in fishing and agriculture. Their main crops were taro, sorghum, and banana. Meat, coconuts, and honey were also consumed regularly by the first Swahili peoples.

Arab and Persian merchants visited and traded with the Swahili peoples during the reign of the Abbasid caliphate (AD 750-1258). Coins minted during the reign of the great Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid were later found on the Swahili coast. Trading ships from Siraf in Persia sailed the Indian Ocean and docked at the port of Zanj.

The Swahilis sold ivory, ambergris, tortoiseshells, timber, leopard skins, iron, and gold not only to the Gulf region but also to India and China. In turn, they bought fine porcelain from China and Islamic glass and pottery from the Gulf. Enslaved peoples were also brought from the Swahili coast into the Gulf and even to China.

A part of the Swahili coast was known to Muslim merchants and geographers as the land of Zanj. The Arab geographer al-Masudi himself sailed from Suhar in Oman to Zanj and the nearby islands. The 12th-century Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi mentioned the Swahili cities of Pemba, Merca, Barawa (Brava), and Mafia in his records. The 13th-century al-Andalus geographer Ibn Sa’id al-Maghribi, meanwhile, visited the Swahili Coast, particularly Mombasa. He also visited the coastal cities of Mogadishu and Merca. The famed Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta also visited the city of Kilwa (in present-day Tanzania) around 1332.

The history of the medieval Swahili city-states has long been intertwined with Islam. The Yemenite Banu Majid tribe settled in Mogadishu in Somalia after they were driven out from their homeland. Yemenites from the regions of Abyan and Haram also sailed across the Gulf of Aden and started to live in the coastal cities of Somalia.

The Shirazi Dynasty Dominates the Swahili Cities

The Great Mosque of Kilwa was likely built in the 10th century.

The most prominent of the Swahili cities was Kilwa Kisiwani in Tanzania. Back in the 9th-century AD, a Persian-Abyssinian prince fled Shiraz with his family after he was driven out by his brothers. They first sailed from the port of Hormuz to Mogadishu. They lived there for some time until they were driven out of Mogadishu as well. The Shirazi prince and his family sailed down to the island of Kilwa which they later bought from the local Bantu chieftain. The prince and his family ruled Kilwa Kisiwani from then on. The succeeding kings of Kilwa were then known as the rulers of the Shirazi dynasty.

One of Persian prince’s descendants, Sultan Daud b. Suleiman became “Master of Trade” during the mid-1100s. Sultan Daud and his son Hasan ruled Kilwa, Pemba, Mafia, and Zanzibar. The Swahili cities became major trading ports for Arab and Persian merchants during their reign. Kilwa itself became wealthy not only because of trade but also because of the Shirazis’ monopoly on the gold trade in Great Zimbabwe. The gold they mined in the Great Zimbabwe first went through the Shirazi-held city of Sofala. Shipments of gold were then transported to the island of Kilwa. The Shirazi sultan then imposed taxes on the gold that went through his city. The revenues collected from the gold trade were sent to the king’s treasury.

Most of the people of the Swahili coast became Muslims during the domination of the Shirazi dynasty. They practiced Sunni Islam and followed the Shafi school of thought. Mosques and Islamic-style tombs in Kilwa Kisiwani were built during the time of Sultan Daud b. Suleiman. Traces of Islamic architectural elements could be seen in the remains of the great palace and emporium of Kilwa. The Swahili cities boasted single and multi-level houses that were made of coral stones and lime mortar.

The Swahilis extended their domination into Madagascar. The cities of Barawa and Mogadishu were the Swahilis’ main rivals during the 14th-century. The Swahili cities continued to flourish and reached their peak during this time.

References:

Picture by: en:user:Claude McNab – from en.wiki with source-description: Original Uploader was Claude McNab (talk) at 19:32, 15 May 2006., Public Domain, Link

Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1996.

Oliver, Roland, ed. The Cambridge History of Africa:. The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521209816.

Perkins, John. “The Indian Ocean and Swahili Coast coins, international networks and local developments.” Perkins, John. Accessed February 01, 2017. https://afriques.revues.org/1769.

Roberts, J. M., and Odd Arne. Westad. The History of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Posted on January 15, 2018November 2, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

The Arrival of Jesuits and the Resurgence of Christianity in China 1720

Christianity first appeared in China in AD 635, but imperial hostility to the religion forced it to disappear around the tenth century. Christianity only experienced a resurgence after the arrival of the Jesuits in the middle of the 15th century and their efforts to reintroduce the religion to the Chinese. These events are recorded on the Bible Timeline Online with World History during that time.

The Foundation of the Jesuits

In 1534, the Spanish priest, mystic, and theologian Ignatius de Loyola founded a religious order. This religious order would later be called the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). His friends Francis Xavier, Nicolas de Bobadilla, Diego Laynez, Peter Faber, Simon Rodriguez, and Alfonso Salmeron were among the original founders of the Jesuits. The Vatican officially recognized the Jesuits in 1540 through the papal bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae.

The number of priests that joined the Jesuits grew rapidly between 1540 and 1544. These men quickly gained a reputation for discipline because of their leader’s military past. They were also known for their commitment and obedience to the Catholic Church during a time when it was threatened by the Reformation. The energetic Jesuits refused to stay inside their monasteries and spend their days in prayer and contemplation. Instead, they went out and ministered to society. It was not long before the brothers were establishing schools, orphanages, and shelters for prostitutes throughout Europe.

The Jesuits in Asia and the Resurgence of Christianity in China

A page from the Portuguese-Chinese dictionary created by Ruggieri, Ricci, and Fernandez.

In 1539, Pope Paul III appointed the Jesuit co-founder Francis Xavier as a papal legate and missionary to India. He arrived in Portuguese-held Goa three years later and successfully evangelized in the area. Thousands of Indians converted to Christianity, but the Jesuit missionary did not stay for long. He traveled to Japan in 1549 and established a Christian community there. The rapid growth of Christianity alarmed some Buddhist monks who then drove the Jesuit missionary out of the kingdom.

Francis Xavier briefly visited China, but soon returned to Goa to continue his missionary work. He tried to re-enter China in 1552, but his request was refused by the authorities. He died in Shangchuan Island in Guangdong in the same year and his body was taken back to Goa where it was buried.

The Italian Alessandro Valignano was one of the first Jesuits to follow Francis Xavier’s path in Asia. He arrived in Goa in 1574 and soon developed a way to evangelize the natives without much interference with local customs. He traveled to Portuguese-held Macau but found that Christianity was unable to gain a foothold there because not one missionary knew the language. The Chinese were also unimpressed with “bearded round-eyes” (as they called the Europeans) and even forbade them from entering Guangzhou.

Valignano wrote to the head of the Jesuits in Goa and asked him to send a priest who had an aptitude for language. His prayers were answered when the head of Jesuit mission in Goa sent a fellow Italian priest named Michele Ruggieri to Macau in 1579. Valignano left for Japan, but Ruggieri stayed in Macau where he learned to read and write the Chinese language. The task that Ruggieri faced was enormous, so he appealed to Valignano to send the priest Matteo Ricci as a companion and fellow student. Valignano—then in Japan —sent the message to the Jesuit mission in Goa. The Jesuits then sent Matteo Ricci to join Ruggieri in Macau in 1580.

The duo left Macau and ventured to nearby Guangzhou and Zhaoqing in an attempt to establish a mission further inland. They befriended locals and authorities but was initially met with resistance when they tried to establish a mission. They finally made a breakthrough in 1582 when they received permission to establish a mission in Zhaoqing. Between 1583 and 1588, the duo (together with the Jesuit layman Sebastiano Fernandez) were also able to compile the first Portuguese-Chinese dictionary.

Father Ruggieri mapped out towns and cities in Guangzhou and Zhaoqing during his free time. Matteo Ricci, on the other hand, embarked on the task of translating European texts to Chinese. Ricci translated Latin catechisms to Chinese and Confucian classics to Latin. Ruggieri left China in 1588 to ask the Vatican to send an embassy to Beijing, but he died in Italy without seeing his dream come true.

Ricci stayed behind in China but was expelled from Zhaoqing in 1589. He transferred to Shaoguan, and then relocated to Nanjing and Nanchang in 1595. Valignano, meanwhile, appointed him Major Superior of Jesuits in China. He traveled to Beijing in 1598, but it was not until 1601 that Ricci gained entrance to Wanli Emperor’s court in the Forbidden City. The emperor was unimpressed at first, but Ricci persisted. He allowed the Jesuit priest to build the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in Beijing four years later. He died in Beijing in 1610 and was given full honors by Wanli Emperor during his funeral.

Wanli Emperor died in 1620, but the Ming and Qing emperors who succeeded him were hostile to Christianity. Jesuit activities in China were suppressed, while missionaries were sent back to Macau. Christianity was considered a “dangerous doctrine” and soon, Chinese Christians faced persecution. By the middle of the 1600s and despite the persecutions, the Christian population in China reached more than 300,000 people.

References:

Picture by: Matteo Ricci, Michele Ruggieri, Sebastian Fernandez (Chinese characters) – Portuguese-Chinese dictionary: manuscript by Matteo Ricci and Michele Ruggieri. Published as part of a book: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C , p.223, Public Domain, Link

Barthel, Manfred. The Jesuits History and Legend of the Society of Jesus. Translated by Mark Howson. New York, NY: William Morrow, 1987.

Martin, Malachi. The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.

Posted on January 13, 2018November 1, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Yoruba Culture

The southwest portion of modern Nigeria was first settled between the 4th and 7th centuries AD. The group of people that settled in the region was later called the Yoruba. The Yoruba culture flourished between the 12th and 14th centuries, and it was centered in the city of Ile-Ife. The Yorubas were ruled by the Ile-Ife ooni or king, and they had an organized political system. Their artisans produced some of the best terracotta and bronze sculptures during the height of the Yoruba culture. These events are recorded on the Biblical Timeline Poster with World History during that time.

Mythological Origins of the Yoruba

Olodumare was the supreme god and most powerful deity of the Yoruba. He lived in the lower heavens, and the Yoruba worshiped him as the creator of the universe. The earth was filled only with water so Olodumare decided to create land. He summoned one of his orishas (spirits) named Obatala to do the task. Before Obatala left to do the task, Olodumare gave him a golden chain, a small bag of earth, and a five-toed chicken.

Obatala used the golden chain to get down to the ocean. When he reached the end of the chain, he stacked the soil on the water and placed the chicken on top of the mound of soil. Obatala then told the chicken to scratch the soil to scatter it. When the task was finished, Obatala used the golden chain to climb up again to the heavens.

He told Olodumare that the task was done, so the supreme god sent a chameleon to check if the earth was dry. The chameleon obeyed his command, and it saw that indeed, the earth was dry. The supreme god Olodumare named the place “Ile-Ife.” In another version of the story, Obatala’s brother Oduduwa stole the bag of soil and created the earth. The brothers became bitter rivals after this event.

Olodumare then decided to share his powers, so he bound together the orisha of creation Obatala and the orisha of the ocean called Yemaya. The couple created more orishas who then received the powers that Olodumare wanted to share. He also gave Obatala the power to create humans, so the orisha of creation returned to earth. Obatala created the first humans the moment he arrived in Ile-Ife, and they became the ancestors of the Yoruba people. Obatala ruled Ile-Ife as its king, but his brother, Oduduwa, arrived on earth. Oduduwa then deposed his brother and ruled Ile-Ife instead. Oduduwa’s children later founded their own kingdoms in the region.

Ile-Ife Beyond the Legend: The Homeland of the Yoruba People

The ancient city of Ile-Ife is located in southwest Nigeria, in modern Osun State. Ile-Ife was the spiritual and political homeland of the medieval Yoruba people. It started as a small village in the 4th century, and it rapidly grew during the 8th century. By AD 1000, Ile-Ife was a major trading center with fortifications and paved streets.

The Yoruba people were ruled by a king they called ooni. The orisha Oduduwa was the first Yoruban ooni, and his descendants became the city’s rulers after him. Although the position of the ooni was usually hereditary, there were instances when wealthy and prominent Yoruba men became ooni.

The ooni was not merely a political position, but he was also considered as a spiritual leader. He ruled over minor kings (oba) who paid tribute to him. The ooni wielded influence over the surrounding kingdoms, but this power was not achieved through military invasions. The surrounding peoples considered Ile-Ife as their spiritual homeland, so they easily submitted to the ooni.

The city became a regional power between the 12th and the 15th centuries. Craftsmen and artisans called Ile-Ife their home. Many of them produced the realistic and detailed terracotta and bronze sculptures recovered in the 20th century.

Relations with the Kingdom of Benin

The Edo was another group of people that lived near the Yoruba region. They founded the kingdom of Benin which was also ruled by a king (oba). The Edo people became dissatisfied with their king, so they deposed him. The state of Benin became a republic for some time, until this government, too, was dissolved. The people sent envoys to the Yoruba king and asked him to send them a ruler. The Yoruba ooni sent his son, Prince Oranmiyan, to Benin where he married a local woman. She gave birth to their son, Prince Eweka, while Oranmiyan tried to govern Benin.

After some time, Oranmiyan grew tired of the chaos in the kingdom. He returned to the land of the Yoruba while his son, Eweka, became king (oba) of Benin. He and his descendants ruled Benin City (in present-day Edo State, Nigeria) for many years.

References:

Picture by: WaynaQhapaq – English Wikipedia, Public Domain, Link

Abimbola, Kola. Yoruba Culture: A Philosophical Account. Birmingham, UK: Iroko Academic Publishers, 2006.

Brodd, Jeffrey. Primary Source Readings in World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary’s Press, 2009.

Falola, Toyin, and Matthew M. Heaton. A History of Nigeria. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Oliver, Roland, ed. The Cambridge History of Africa:. The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521209816.

Posted on January 9, 2018November 1, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Azores, Portugal Takes

Spain conquered the Canary Islands in 1402. It was the kingdom’s first colony, and neighboring Portugal was eager to make a conquest, too. The Portuguese under Prince Henry the Navigator ventured further into the Atlantic until they found a group of islands in 1431. The archipelago was later named Azores and Portugal claimed it as the kingdom’s own colony starting in 1432. These events are recorded on the Bible Timeline Chart with World History during that time.

The Start of the Age of Discovery

In 1439, the Catalan Gabriel Valsequa (Gabriel de Vallesca) published a star chart (planisphere). In this map, de Valsequa mentioned that a Portuguese navigator named Diogo de Silves discovered the islands of the Azores in 1427. De Silves’ discovery of the islands is still disputed, so the claim remains a legend.

The German mariner and geographer Martin Behaim produced a globe called Erdapfel in 1492. He put the discovery of the islands of Azores in 1431 after two ships led by an unnamed commander visited the area. The Portuguese navigator Diogo Gomes also told Martin Behaim that two expeditions to the Azores were made during the time of Prince Henry the Navigator. The first expedition reached the islands of Pico, Faial, Santa Maria, Terceira, and San Miguel. The exact date of this voyage, however, remains a mystery.

The Beginnings of the Portuguese Empire

Mount Pico is part of the Azores archipelago.

The second voyage mentioned by Diogo Gomes was under the command of the Portuguese monk Fray Gonçalo Velho Cabral in 1431. His crew saw some islands, but the ship immediately returned to Portugal. He and his men returned to the area in 1432. They landed on an island that they later named “Santa Maria” in honor of the Virgin Mary. They explored the area for some time and sailed back to Portugal to report to Prince Henry.

Prince Henry the Navigator honored Gonçalo Velho Cabral by giving him the island of Santa Maria as his fief. He also planned to send herds to the islands and once again sent Gonçalo to explore the area. Gonçalo Velho Cabral was appointed as the Commander of the Islands of Azores in 1433 by King Alfonso V. It was not until 1435 that the group of Portuguese settlers organized by Gonçalo Velho Cabral landed in Santa Maria.

The Portuguese rulers sent more expeditions to the area and settled the island of Sao Miguel in 1444. Some settlers arrived on the Island of Terceira five years later. The islands of Sao Miguel and Terceira, meanwhile, were settled in 1452. By the end of the 1400s, the Portuguese were the undisputed masters of the Azores and the neighboring islands of Madeira.

References:

Picture by: Guillaume Baviere from Helsingborg, Sweden – 2010-07-19Uploaded by tm, CC BY 2.0, Link

Barreto, Mascarenhas. The Portuguese Columbus, Secret Agent of King John II. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992.

Minahan, James. One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000.

Olson, James Stuart, and Robert Shadle, eds. Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.

Shafer, Boyd C., Bailey Diffie, and George Winius. Europe and the World in the Age of Expansion: Volume 1 Foundations of the Portuguese Empire 1415-1580. University of Minnesota Press, 1977

Posted on January 7, 2018October 31, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Paul II

Pope Paul II reigned between 1464 and 1471. He came from a wealthy and influential Venetian family which played a part in his rise as a clergyman. He signed the Election Capitulation, but he also defied its terms early in his reign. He was known to be a handsome and flamboyant pope whose reign was marred by accusations of immorality. He died in 1471 after he suffered a heart attack. These events are recorded on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History during that time.

Early Life and Career

Pietro Barbo, the man who would later become Pope Paul II, was born on February 23, 1417. His father was Niccolo Barbo, while his mother was the sister of Pope Eugene IV, Polixena or Polissena Condulmer. The young Pietro followed the footsteps of his wealthy Venetian relatives and trained to be a merchant. However, he changed his path and pursued a religious education after his uncle, Eugene IV, became pope. He excelled in canon law and history but never paid attention to humanism (unlike some of the previous popes).

He became archdeacon of Bologna at a young age, and it was quickly followed by his appointment as bishop of Cervia and Vicenza. In 1440, he became the cardinal-deacon of Venice at the young age of 23. His family’s wealth and influence no doubt played a part in his appointment to the prominent ecclesiastical positions at such a young age. His uncles already served as cardinals during his youth. Pietro also became influential in the papal courts of Nicholas V and Calixtus. His influence waned during the reign of his predecessor, Pope Pius II.

The Election Capitulation

Pietro Barbo, the man who would later become Pope Paul II, was born on February 23, 1417.

Pope Pius died in 1464 and the College of Cardinals immediately gathered in the Vatican to elect a successor. Cardinal Pietro Barbo joined the election, and he was among those favored to succeed the deceased pope. Before the election, all but one cardinal signed the document called the Election Capitulation. The Capitulation wanted to limit the power of the pope and increase the power of the cardinals. Among those who signed the document was Pietro Barbo, and his enthusiasm in giving away most of his power proved to be shortsighted.

In the Election Capitulation, the cardinals wanted the pope to devote his time to the campaign against the Ottoman Turks who conquered Constantinople in 1453. The revenues from the alum quarries in Italy would also be used to fund the war. The pope was also not allowed to move the papal court to any other Italian cities unless the move was approved by the majority of the cardinals.

Additionally, a general council was to be held every three years to address ecclesiastical reforms. The council would also persuade the nobility to launch crusades against the Ottoman Empire. The pope would also have to limit the member of cardinals to 20 and that no one under 30 years old would qualify. Clergymen with lesser education would also not qualify as cardinals.

The Sacred College would have the exclusive right to approve the nomination of new cardinals and benefices. They also required the pope to prevent the rise of nepotism in the troops that served in the papal states. The cardinals also stated that decisions concerning the church and the papal states would also need to go through them.

As Pope

Cardinal Barbo was elected on August 30, 1464. He wanted to take the name “Formosus,” but the cardinals dissuaded him as it was the war-cry of the Venetians. He took the name Paul II instead and was crowned in the Vatican on September 16, 1464.

As a pope, Paul II was described as flamboyant and charming, yet generous and kind to the poor. He came from a rich Venetian family, so it was only natural that his favorite pastime was to collect beautiful artworks, jewelry, and coins. Before his election, he once jokingly told the cardinals that he would give each one a villa where they could rest for the summer.

He defied the Election Capitulation that he signed before his election as pope early in his reign. He alienated the senior cardinals by appointing new ones without their approval. He promoted his nephews and his former tutor as cardinals, too. Nominees closely associated with some kings of Europe were also promoted during his reign. He also tried to get rid of the College of Abbreviators which was a papal office where writers worked to prepare papal documents. The closure of the College pushed the unemployed writers to rebel against the pope.

Pope Paul II also came into conflict with the king of Bohemia, George of Podebrady, whose succession he did not support. He then deposed and excommunicated George of Podebrady. In response to his deposition, George’s prominent supporter accused the pope of immorality.

Pope Paul II died of a heart attack on July 26, 1471.

References:

Picture by: Cristofano dell’Altissimo – Source, originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original uploader was Savidan at en.wikipedia, 2007-06-29 (original upload date), Public Domain, Link

Gurugé, Anura. Popes and The Tale of Their Names. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2008.

Noel, Gerard. The Renaissance Popes: Culture, Power and the Making of the Borgia Myth. London: Hachette UK, 2016.

Pastor, Ludwig, and Frederick Ignatius Antrobus. The History of the Popes, From the Close of the Middle Ages. Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1969.

Williams, George L. Papal Genealogy: The Families and Descendants of the Popes. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004.

Posted on January 5, 2018October 30, 2017 by Kat Cendana — Leave a comment

Nicholas V

Pope Nicholas V reigned from 1447 to 1455. He was a true Renaissance pope who welcomed humanists and other intellectuals in his court. His reign was relatively stable so he was able to restore Rome and the Vatican to their former beauty. Unfortunately, he permitted the Portuguese raiders to capture non-Christians in Africa on the pretext of a crusade in the mid-1400s. These events are recorded on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History during this time.

Early Life and Career

Tommaso Parentucelli was born on November 15, 1397, in the little town of Sarzana, near La Spezia. His father worked as a physician and died when Tommaso was young. Because of his father’s death and his family’s poverty, he was forced to stop his education in Bologna. He traveled to Florence where he became the tutor of the sons of the wealthy Florentine families, such as the Albizzi and Strozzi clans. It turned out to be a blessing for the young scholar. Florence was one of the centers for humanism, and the young Tomasso met many of them during his time there.

He returned to Bologna in 1419 and received his Masters in Theology three years later. The Bishop of Bologna, Niccolo Albergati, hired him as a jack-of-all-trades. However, he was most useful to the bishop as a book collector–then a popular Renaissance pursuit. He was able to visit Germany, France, and England in search of precious manuscripts. Some of his collections even survived into modern times.

Bishop Albergati died in 1444, and Tomasso succeeded him as Bishop of Bologna. However, he failed to work effectively as a bishop as Bologna was wracked with chaos at that time. Pope Eugene was so impressed with Bishop Parentucelli that he appointed him as the papal legate to the Holy Roman Empire. He was later appointed as the cardinal-priest of the church of Santa Susanna in Rome in 1446.

As Pope Nicholas V

Pope Nicholas V was born Tommaso Parentucelli on November 15, 1397.

Pope Eugene IV died on February 23, 1447, and Cardinal Parentucelli’s election as the new pope came soon after. He took the name Nicholas V to honor his mentor and patron, the deceased Bishop Niccolo Albergati. The chaos of the Avignon Papacy and the Great Western Schism led to Rome’s deterioration. The city became more stable during the reign of the previous popes. Because of this stability and the availability of funds, the new pope decided to restore Rome’s crumbling buildings, fortifications, streets, and churches.

The restorations in the Leonine City, the Vatican, and many structures in Rome became a lifelong project for Nicholas V. He first ordered that the restoration of the city walls and bridges. Many of these structures dated back to the Roman Empire era. The Aqua Virgo built by Emperor Agrippa was also restored and used again during the reign of Nicholas V. It was later renamed as Acqua Vergine.

He also had several church buildings in Rome restored. Some of the churches which underwent restoration were the Basilica of Saint Lawrence outside the Walls, the Basilica of St. Paul outside the Walls, the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, and St. Peter’s Basilica. The Palazzo dei Conservatori and other government buildings were also repaired thanks to the efforts of Pope Nicholas V.

Pope Nicholas was a lifelong collector of books and patron of the arts. His love for classical Greek and Roman texts carried over into his papacy. As an avid collector, he sent his men all over Europe to search for long-forgotten manuscripts. His extensive manuscript collection eventually gave way to the Vatican Library. He also commissioned scholars to translate Greek classics and sent ships to recover manuscripts from Constantinople before the siege of 1453. The ships, however, did not reach Constantinople on time. Greek scholars who fled the Ottomans later smuggled manuscripts into Italy and the rest of Europe.

Unlike the previous pope who looked at the humanists with suspicion, Pope Nicholas welcomed them into his court. Poggio Bracciolini dedicated his translation of Diodorus Siculus’ The Library of History to Nicholas himself. Pope Nicholas also appointed the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla as an apostolic secretary. The pope was known to be a generous patron of scholars.

Pope Nicholas V dissolved the Council of Basel in 1449. Pilgrims flocked to Rome after he announced a Jubilee one year later to celebrate the end of the Great Western Schism. The offerings that the pilgrims brought were added to the papal treasury. Unfortunately, the crowd that descended on Rome slowed to a trickle after an outbreak of the plague.

Pope Nicholas V and the European Slave Trade

The man who was responsible for the spread of humanism in Europe was also responsible for the misery of enslaved Africans. On June 18, 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued a papal bull called Dum Diversas which he addressed to Alfonso V of Portugal. The bull allowed the Portuguese king to launch a campaign against, capture, and enslave non-Christians of Africa. The campaign was justified as a crusade. The pope also promised the remission of sins for anyone who joined this “crusade.”

Three years later, Pope Nicholas issued another papal bull titled Romanus Pontifex. The bull granted the Portuguese trade monopoly on all lands south of Cape Bojador in Western Sahara. This second papal bull reinforced the Dum Diversas’ encouragement to enslave non-Christians which included “heathens” and Muslims.

The year 1453 was not kind to the pope. The middle-aged Nicholas was sick and depressed after an unsuccessful appeal to European nobility to help the Byzantines for the last time. The rebellion and execution of the Italian humanist Stefano Porcari also took its toll on the pope. Pope Nicholas V died on March 24, 1455.

References:

Picture by: Peter Paul Rubens [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Burroughs, Charles. “Below the Angel: An Urbanistic Project in the Rome of Pope Nicholas V.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 45 (1982): 94-124. doi:10.2307/750968.

Noel, Gerard. The Renaissance Popes: Culture, Power and the Making of the Borgia Myth. London: Hachette UK, 2016.

Rodriguez, Junius P. The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1997.

Scannell, Thomas. “Pope Nicholas V.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 25 Jan. 2017 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11058a.htm>.

Strong, James. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Vol. 7. Harper, 1894.